Islamic Terms

see the footnote to 2:1; Introduction.

see Wuḍū’

see Naskh

Everyone is accountable for his or her deeds and misdeeds: 6:164.

(call) is a verbal noun derived from the root a-dh-n which means to know, to permit. In its transitive verbal form (ādhana), it means to announce and make something known. As an Islāmic term, Adhān means the call to the congregational prayer made from the turret (mi’dhanah) of a mosque (now through loudspeakers) shortly before each of the five obligatory daily prayers. The caller to the prayer is called a mu’adhdhin, a verbal noun derived from the same root. Another announcement, somewhat similar to adhān, is made at the beginning of the prayer by someone standing behind the Imām (q.v.). It is called “Iqāmah” (Kashshāf 1423; Lisān 13/9-12; Lane 1/43).

plural of Ḥadīth (q.v.).

Wife, members of a family, inhabitants of a house. As an Islāmic term, it means the immediate family members of the Prophet including his wives and daughters (33:33) and in particular those who are not allowed to accept Ṣadaqah (q.v.), who are the progeny of ‘Alī though his wife Fāṭimah, of his brother ‘Aqīl, and the Prophet’s uncles Ja‘far and ‘Abbās (Aṣfahānī 29, Qurṭubī 8/71, 14/182f; Ibn Kathīr 3/48; Lisān 2/15, 11/28f; Lane 1/121).

People empowered to unbind and bind. This term is used for the powerful group empowered to elect the Imām or Khalīfah of a Muslim State and whose opinion is sought by the ruler on important decisions. This group is also called Ahl al-Shūra (People of Consultation), Ahl al-Ijtihād (People with the power of arriving at independent opinions) or Ulū al-Amr (People invested with authority). The Qur’ān, Sunnah and even later Islāmic literature do not specify how this group is to be selected and who can select them. According to the Egyptian legal expert ‘Abd al-Razzāq Al-Sanhūrī (d. 1971), “During the time of the Ṣaḥābah (q.v.), it was unthinkable to prescribe conditions for membership of the Ahl al-Ḥall wa’l-‘Aqd because the dominant view was that the Ṣaḥābah were this group. Had the office of the Caliph survived the generation of the Ṣahābah, the Muslim Ummah would have thought of laying down the rules of an organised and exact exercise to elect the Ahl al-Ḥall wa’l-‘Aqd” (Al-Māwardī, p. 22 (footnote)). Scholars like Al-Māwardī, Al-Nawawī, Al-Baghdādī, Muḥammad ‘Abduh and Aḥmad Rashīd Riḍā, etc. have laid down the conditions required in a person who may be elected to the membership of the Aḥl al-Ḥall wa’l-‘Aqd group but no one has defined how these are to be selected or how they will exercise their authority. As a result, rulers, powerful individuals and army commanders etc. have exercised the powers of the Ahl al-Ḥall wa’l ‘Aqd. Aḥmad Jād, a modern scholar, says that Ahl al-Ḥall wa’l-‘Aqd must be elected by the Ummah in a direct election (Al-Māwardī, p. 23f).

People of the Book, i.e., Jews, Christians and Sabeans. The Prophet treated the Majūs (Zoroastrians, Parsis) also as “Ahl al-Kitāb.” Later, Muslim rulers decided to treat Hindus too as “Ahl al-Kitāb” (see the footnote to 3:64). Such people have a right in an Islāmic state to freely practise their religions, maintain their religious sites and have their own religious leaders, who are exempted from any taxes. Under the Millat System of the Ottoman Caliphate, Ahl al-Kitāb enjoyed religious and administrative autonomy and had their own courts and administrations which were recognised by the State (Aṣfahānī 425; Lisān 1/699; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/402-3, 2/119, 3/120; Lane 7/2590).

People of the Sunnah (q.v.), i.e., people who follow and conform to the Sunnah of the Prophet. It is, in general, a description of people who adhere to the pristine Islām as preached by the Prophet and the four Rightly-Guided Caliphs after him. This group of Muslims is also called “Sunnīs” or Ahl al-Sunnah Wa’l-Jama‘ah (People of the Sunnah who stick with the community). The Sunnīs disagree with the other major group of Muslims called Shī‘ah or Shī‘īs who believe in the infallibility of the İmāms belonging to the progeny of ‘Alī and Fāṭimah, daughter of the Prophet (Ibn Kathīr 1/398, 340, 2/280; Thānawī, Kashshāf, 1/982; Qurṭubī 4/158-60, 7/139; Lane 1/121).

People or Group of Ḥadīth. This is a new Sunnī sect that emerged in North India in the mid-19th century, influenced by the teachings of Shāh Ismā‘īl Shahīd (d. 1831 CE), the right-hand man of Sayyid Aḥmad Barelvī (d. 1831 CE) who called his group “Ṭarīqah-e Muḥammadīyah” (The Muḥammadan Way). Its traces go back to Shāh Walīullāh Dehlawī (d. 1762 CE). They reject taqlīd (following of a certain school of fiqh), reject innovations in religion (Bid‘ah) and favour ijtihād (q.v.) based on the original sources of Islām, viz., the Qur’ān and the Prophet’s Sunnah and Ḥadīth. It is also the description used for themselves by the Wahhābīs, the followers of Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792 CE) in Arabia who are in fact followers of the Ḥanbalī school of fiqh. Ahl-e Ḥadees [Ḥadīth] are found in the South Asian subcontinent and its members also call themselves “Salafīs” (followers of the Salaf, i.e., the earliest generations of Islām) though the former are Ḥanbalīs and the latter are Ẓāhirīs (see the section on “Schools of Tafsīr” in Introduction) (Ibn Kathīr 1/102, 750, 3/275; Kashshāf 994; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/262, 949, 968; Qurṭubī 7/138; Lisān 9/158f; Lane 4/1408).

see Wine, Ḥarām.

God, the One and the Only who should be worshipped – see Introduction.

10:21, 13:11, 36:12, 45:29, 50:17.

see the footnotes to 2:87, 17:85.

Malā’ikah

Riddah, Irtidād.

grandchildren, tribes, communities, divisions. As used in the Qur’ān, it means the Children of Israel, i.e., the progeny of Prophet Ya‘qūb (see the footnote to 2:132) who were divided into twelve tribes (7:160). The children of Prophet Ismā‘īl are not included in this terminology (Aṣfahānī 222; Ṭabarī 1/442; Kashshāf 99, 392; Ibn Kathīr 1/388; Lisān 7/310; Lane 4/1294f).

idols of pre-Islām Arabia – see the footnote to 71:23.

report, landmark, result. In Islāmic terminology, it is an act or saying attributed to a Companion of the Prophet or a ḥadīth which has a broken chain of narrators (see Isnād). The term “Athar” is also used to describe an act or saying attributed to the Salaf (q.v.), i.e., the immediate generations following the Prophet and his Companions (Aṣfahānī 9; Lisān 4/5f; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/98; Lane 2/529).

revolt, rebellion – see the footnote to 42:39.

see the footnote to 42:17.

Children of Isrā’īl.

barrier, bar, separator between two things. As an Islāmic term, Barzakh means the interval or the state of existence from the time of one’s death to the Day of Resurrection (23:100) (Aṣfahānī 43; Lisān 2/8; Qurṭubī 12/150, 15/319; Lane 1/187) – see also the footnote to 23:100.

to say Bismillah, i.e., In the Name of Allāh.

see the footnotes to 16:72, 29:52, 34:49.

The Overflowing House. It is a house for the worship of Allāh by the angels on the Seventh Heaven. The Prophet visited this place during his heavenly journey, the Mi‘rāj – see the footnote to 52:4 (Ibn Kathīr 2/408, 3/386; Lisān 4/604; Qurṭubī 17/60).

innovation, anything invented or innovated, something or custom brought into existence for the first time. As an Islāmic term, Bid‘ah means an addition or impairment in religion. It may be an idea or an act. Any religious act or idea innovated after the Prophet is Bid‘ah which is unacceptable unless it does not clash with the rules and spirit of the religion, such as Caliph ‘Umar’s asking people to pray together the nafl (q.v.) prayer after the ‘Ishā prayer during Ramaḍān (this is now called Tarāwīḥ). People used to offer this prayer individually during the time of the Prophet and the first Caliph. An example of Bid‘ah in religion is Christians’ innovation of monasticism (rahbānīyah) which they later failed to faithfully honour (57:27) (Aṣfahānī 39; Ibn Kathīr 3/462; Qurṭubī 17/265; Kashshāf 1085; Lisān 8/6; Lane 1/167).

paid to rulers and the powerful to get undue benefit is unlawful 2:188.

an anglicized form of Khalīfah (q.v.).

Spend what exceeds your need (Al-‘Afw): 2:218. Charity is for those who ask and those who do not ask: 51:19, 70:25. Holding it over the recipient or insulting the recipient nullifies it 2:264 – see also under Appendix E.

see the footnote to 2:40.

Something that differentiates between Truth and Falsehood. The Qur’ān and the previous divine Scriptures, Torāh and Injīl, are called the “Criterion” (2:53, 2:185, 3:4, 21:48, 25:1) because they differentiate between Truth and Falsehood, guidance and misguidance, ḥalāl and ḥarām, and good deeds and bad deeds. The Battle of Badr too has been described as the “Day of the Criterion” (8:41) because it differentiated between the Believers and the Rejecters.

Liar, Deceiver (superlative). It is derived from the root d-j-l, which means to conceal, cover up, lie, deceive, falsify. As an Islāmic term, al-Dajjāl means the False Christ or the Antichrist who will emerge in the last days of life on earth, will arrogate godship to himself and will spread unbelief and injustice across the world (Aṣfahānī 467f; Ibn Kathīr 1/602; Lisān 2/594f, 11/236f; Lane 3/853, 7/2715).

see Dār al-Islām

Abode or Territory of Islām. It is a term coined by Muslim fuqahā’ of early Islām and mediaeval times to describe a land where Muslims ruled or where Muslims were safe in term of life and property and had the freedom to practise their religion. The opposite of this was Dār al-Kufr (Abode or Territory of Disbelief) or Dār al-Ḥarb (Territory or Abode of War) which was ruled by a non-Muslim where Muslims’ lives and properties were not safe and where they did not enjoy religious freedom. In between, there were Dār al-Amn (Abode of Safety or Peace) and Dār al-Muwāda‘ah (Abode of Mutual Compact). These last two would be ruled by non-Muslims but were under treaty with a Muslim state guaranteeing Muslims’ lives and property and freedom to practise their religion there. The old concepts of Dār al-Islām and Dār al-ḥarb are no longer applicable today. The world in which the classical fuqahā’ formulated their concepts of different territories no longer exists. Their stand that Dār al-ḥarb, meaning non-Muslim lands, are “lawless” does not hold today. Indeed, life and property in some non-Muslim countries may be more legally protected and secure than in some “Muslim” countries. Almost all countries today are bound by some basic laws and human rights treaties under the aegis of the United Nations which apply to citizens and noncitizens. Moreover, almost all countries are in a state of what the fuqahā’ specified as ‘mutual peace’ (muwādaʿah) and ‘permanent truce’ (al-Hudnah al-Dā’īmah). Our faqīh today will have to take the new factors into account (for details, see Zafarul-Islām Khan, Hijrah in Islām, Delhi 1998, pp. 321-342).

see Dār al-Islām

One’s own limbs will witness against him: 24:24.

see Qadr

sin, crime, fault, misdeed, transgression, act of disobedience. As an Islāmic term, dhanb means sin, an act that deprives one of the favour of Allāh and entails punishment if done intentionally. It is a synonym of Ithm (q.v.) and ma‘ṣiyah (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 181, Lisān 1/389, Lane 3/980).

earlier Divine Messages 3:58, 16:43.

compact, covenant, contract, treaty, obligation, bond, a due (ḥaqq) for the neglect of which one is blamed, an inviolable right or due. As an Islāmic term, Dhimmah means the obligation by an Islāmic state to protect non-Muslims living within its borders. Such people are called “Ahl al-Dhimmah” (People whose protection is an obligation of the state) (singular: dhimmi). In lieu of this protection for their lives and properties, a healthy male dhimmi pays an annual tax called Jizyah (q.v.). The amount of this tax used to be fixed according to the ability of the dhimmī to pay. There was no tax on non-Muslim children, women, elderly men and religious figures like priests and monks. A dhimmī was not required to volunteer in the Muslim army but if he volunteered, his Jizyah was waived. Dhimmīs paid no other tax while Muslims had to pay Zakāt at various rates according to their income, nature of income, and savings, which were much higher than Jizyah (Ibn Kathīr 2/149f, 151; Jaṣṣās 3/123f; Qurṭubī 8/76; Kashshāf 424; Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawzīyah, Aḥkām Ahl al-Dhimmah 88; Lisān 13/221f; Lane 3/976). The concept of dhimmah has been replaced in recent times by equality in nationality in all Muslim states (58 at present) and none of which levies Jizyah.

the Dual-Horned. It is the epithet of a person in ancient times, mentioned in the Qur’ān (18:83) – see the footnote to 18:83.

Custom, habit, business, obedience, submissiveness, requital. As an Islāmic term, Dīn means the religion revealed by Allāh to Prophet Muḥammad and to earlier Prophets, in both doctrinal and practical terms. Dīn consists of the laws of Allāh that men are required to believe in and act accordingly. Dīn is synonymous to Sharī‘ah (q.v.), but while Dīn is the basic religion revealed to all Prophets of Allāh (42:13), Sharī‘ah is a particular religion revealed to a certain prophet of Allāh. Islām is the latest and last version of Dīn. Yawm al-Dīn (Day of Dīn) means the Day of Judgement which will follow the Day of Resurrection (Aṣfahānī 174; Lisān 13/169-71; Lane 3/944) – see also the footnote to 3:83.

bloodwit, blood money, fine for homicide. As an Islāmic term, Diyah means the blood money payable by the killer or his agent or family to the heir or the next of kin of the victim. The heir or the family of the victim is entitled to a) demand that the killer be killed in Qiṣāṣ (q.v.); b) accept blood money as decided by a Qāḍī (q.v.) or as in vogue at the time for a person of the status of the victim; or c) pardon the killer. In early Islām, a diyah in Arabia used to be one hundred camels. (Aṣfahānī 518; Qurṭubī 5/315; Lisān 15/383; Lane 8/3051) This system is now applicable in only a few Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia.

Calling, prayer, supplication. As an Islāmic term, Du‘ā is used for invocative prayer and supplication to Allāh at any time, especially during prayers. In a ḥadīth narrated by Salmān al-Fārisī, the Prophet is reported to have said, “Allāh feels ashamed to return unanswered a servant who prays to Him for His favours” (Aṣfahānī 169f; Ibn Kathīr 1/224f; Lisān 14/257f; Lane 3/885).

foul, abominable, immodest, obscene, a lewd act (a euphemism for sexual misconduct). Fāḥishah is used in the Qur’ān to describe a major sin (3:135; 4:15, 19, 22, 25; 17:32; 65:1). Though all major sins are considered Fāḥishah, this term is applied to zinā (adultery) in particular. Circumambulating round the Ka‘bah while naked, a pre-Islāmic tradition, was also considered Fāḥshah and was prohibited after the Conquest of Makkah in January 630 CE (Aṣfahānī 373f; Jaṣṣāṣ 3/44; Ṭabarī 2/46; Kashshāf 107, 151, 195; Qurṭubī 3/228; Ibn Kathīr 1/328, 4/210; Lisān 6/325f; Lane 6/2345).

booty or spoils of war obtained by the Muslim army or state without fighting as opposed to Ghanīmah (q.v.), which is a booty obtained after fighting. Fai’ is not distributed among the fighters but is spent on defence and other expenses of the State after taking out one-fifths which is spent under certain heads specified in 8:41 (Lisān 12/445f; Aṣfahānī 366; Lane 6/2301).

Jurisprudent, scholar of fiqh (q.v.)

see Miskīn

see Mīrāth

obligatory

corruption, depravity. As an Islāmic term, it means causing or spreading evil and encouraging sins on earth. The Qur’ān says that the death of people and animals, spread of fires, droughts, scarcity of agricultural and horticultural produce, illnesses, etc. are due to the evil behaviour of people (30:41) (Ibn Kathīr 2/823; Kashshāf 831; Qurṭubī 14/40; Lisān 3/335; Lane 6/2396f).

transgressor, a believer who violates some or many of the commands of the Sharī‘ah. This term is applied to a believer who sins a lot. When applied to a Rejecter, it means that he or she violated what was dictated by his wisdom and nature (fiṭrah); one who commits Major Sins (Aṣfahānī 380; Ibn Kathīr 3/355; Kashshāf 1036) – see the footnote to 2:26.

see Fāsiq.

trial, probation, temptation, discord. Originally, fitnah meant the melting of gold and silver to separate the pure from the adulterated. As an Islāmic term, it means an affliction or distress or hardship whereby one’s belief is tested or through which one is tempted or forced to renounce one’s faith. It also means unbelief or kufr or trial of a believer in the matter of religion or forcing him to renounce Islām (Aṣfahānī, 372; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/314; Lisān 13/317; Qurṭubī 10/299f; Lane 6/2335f). Allāh considers fitnah more serious than murder (2:191). See also the footnote to 2:191.

1. Profession of Faith (Shahādah); 2. Prayer (Ṣalāt) facing Makkah at five appointed times a day; 3. Zakāt: Payment of the poor-due on annual savings and on agricultural and horticultural produce (see Zakāt); 4. Fasting (Ṣawm) every year during the month of Ramaḍān from dawn to dusk; 5. Pilgrimage (Ḥajj) to Makkah during the pilgrimage season once in a life-time. It is obligatory for every Muslim whose health and finances permit it.

Months during which fighting is not allowed: see the footnote to 2:194

72, 60:8 – see the footnote to 60:8.

plural of Faqīh (q.v.)

53, 3:4, 8:29, 21:48, 25:1.

Months during which fighting is not allowed: see the footnote to 2:194

Maysir

see 2:219, 5:90.

anything won or obtained without toil and difficulty. As an Islāmic term, Ghanīmah means the spoils of a battle in which fighting takes place. One-fifths (khums) of such spoils goes to the treasury to be spent according to Allāh’s instruction (8:41). The remaining four-fifths of the Ghanīmah are to be distributed among the fighters who took part in the battle: soldiers on foot received one share while a horseman received three. Rules are different for Fai’ (q.v.) which is a booty obtained without fighting. A third category of Ghanīmah is Nafl (q.v.) which is an additional portion given to a warrior for exceptional bravery or for doing a certain task. This system of distribution was applicable to volunteer soldiers when there were no standing armies. These rules will not apply to a regular army whose members get salaries and pensions etc. (Aṣfahānī 366; Lisān 12/445f; Lane 6/2301).

Whatever is hidden or absent, anything that is absent or hidden from eyes, invisible, unseen, unapparent. As an Islāmic term, Ghayb means all things hidden from eyes in the past, present and future. The Prophet, on the basis of revelations received from Allāh, acquainted humans about these unseen facts like the presence of Allāh, angels, life after death, the Resurrection, Day of Judgement, meeting with Allāh, Paradise, Hell etc. These are known to Mankind only through the divine revelation received by a Prophet (81:24) (Aṣfahānī 366f; Ibn Kathīr 1/78f; Kashshāf 38; Lisān 1/654f; Lane 6/2313).

is the verbal noun of the root gh-z-w which means to fight the enemy in the latter’s country. As an Islāmic term, Ghazwah means an expedition or battle in which the Prophet took part. It is also called Maghāzī (singular: maghzāth). A battle or expedition during the Prophet’s time in which he did not take part is called Sarīyah (q.v. – plural: Sarāya). A person who takes part in a ghazwah is called a ghāzī (plural: ghuzāt) (Aṣfahānī 360; Lisān 15/123f; Lane 6/2257).

washing. As an Islāmic term, it means the ritual washing of the whole body as a consequence of Janābah (q.v.); after the end of a woman’s periods; and after childbirth; and the washing of a dead body before its burial (Aṣfahānī 361; Lisān 11/194, Lane 6/2258).

94.

return a greeting with one still better 4:86.

Jahannam

is derived from the root h-j-r which means to abandon, shun and cut off friendly relations with someone. As an Islāmic term, Hijrah means the emigration by the Prophet and his companions from Makkah to Madīnah in 622 CE due to religious persecution. This hijrah was obligatory for all Muslims in Makkah and was abrogated only after its conquest by the Muslims in January 630 CE. A person making hijrah is called muhājir. Hijrah from a land where a Muslim individual or community faces religious persecution is obligatory, provided they are helpless. Islāmic fiqhī (q.v.) schools differ when such hijrah becomes obligatory. While Mālikīs say that hijrah becomes obligatory as soon as non-believers take control of a Muslim land while Ḥanafīs say that Hijrah is not obligatory from such a land as long as a Muslim individual or community can follow even part of his/their religion (see Zafarul-Islām Khan, Hijrah in Islām, Delhi 1998). The event of the Hijrah of the Prophet was adopted as the beginning of the Hijri or Islāmic lunar calendar (Aṣfahānī 536f; Qurṭubī 3/50, 11/111; Ibn Kathīr 1/451; Lisān 5/251f; Lane 8/2879f).

It is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months, with 354 or 355 days a year. A lunar month consists of 29 or 30 days a month subject to sighting of the moon at sunset. A lunar century is three years shorter than the solar century. This calendar was used all over the Islāmic world until the western colonial occupation of Muslim lands, which resulted in the imposition of the Gregorian calendar. The latter is still commonly used, except in some matters, like determination of the month of Ramaḍān, Ḥaj, ‘Iddat (q.v.), and calculation of Zakāt. Some countries like Saudi Arabia and Morocco, still officially use the Hijri calendar. The Second Caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb fixed the Hijri calendar on the basis of the Prophet’s Hijrah from Makkah to Madīnah on 12 Rabi‘ al-Awwal (Sept. 622 CE) but he calculated its start from the first month of the lunar calendar, viz. Muḥarram which corresponded to 16 July 622 CE. He also retained the existing Arabic names of the lunar months as well as the existing Arabic names of the days of the week before the advent of Islām. This was after the governor of Baṣrah, Abū Mūsā al-Ash‘arī, complained to the Caliph about difficulty to determine dates of instructions received from the Caliph. Four of the lunar months are ḥarām (forbidden or inviolable), i.e., fighting during them is not allowed unless under enemy attack (2:217), but this is no longer observed by Muslims. The Ḥarām months are Rajab, Dhu’l-Qa‘dah, Dhu’l-Ḥijjah and Muḥarram. The pre-Islāmic Arabs often adjusted months according to their convenience by adding days or deferring or postponing months, especially the Ḥarām months. This was called Nasī’, (postponement/transposing) which is forbidden by Allāh (9:37). In Iran and Afghanistan, a solar Hijri calendar is used (abbreviated as HS or SH). It begins with Nowruz (about 21st March of the Gregorian calendar) and has 365 or 366 days in a year. This tradition was adopted in February 1911 by Iran and in 1922 by Afghanistan. It starts with the Hijrah of the Prophet but has Persian names for the months and days of the week.

is a major sin in Islām. The people of Prophet Lūṭ were destroyed due to this sin – see 6:86, 26:165f.

see the footnote to 2:1.

To seclude oneself at a religious or other quiet place. As an Islāmic term, I‘tikāf means to stay in a mosque for at least one day and night, occupying oneself with prayer and meditation, refraining from leaving the place except for some human necessity. This is practiced during the month of Ramaḍān when some Muslims spend the last ten days in their local mosque and come out of it only after the new moon of the month of Shawwāl is sighted. The I‘tikāf during Ramaḍān is a Sunnah (q.v.). It is mentioned as a deed of piety in the Qur’ān (2:125, 187) (Aṣfahānī 342f; Lisān 9/255; Lane 5/2122) – see the footnote to 2:187.

A name of the Shayṭān (Satan). It is derived from ablasa (root b-l-s), which means to be cut off. When used as ablasa min raḥmatil-Lāh it means one who has no hope of Allāh’s mercy. The original name of Iblīs was ‘Azāzīl, a Jinn who, when ordered by Allāh to prostrate before Adam, refused to do so and claimed that he was more virtuous that Adam since he was created from Fire while Ādam was created from clay (2:34, 7:11, 15:31, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74). Iblīs is also called the Shayṭān (2:36,168,208, 268,275, 3:36,155 etc.) (Lisān 6/29; Lane 1/248).

see the footnote to 71:23.

Slander, lie, falsehood. As an Islāmic term, Ifk is used for slander against a man or woman, which is a sin in Islām. The most famous incident of Ifk was the slander against the Mother of the Faithful Sayyida ‘Ā’isha, wife of the Prophet – see the footnote to 24:11.

to enter the state of prohibition. It starts when a Muslim man puts on a two-piece unsewn cloth with the intention to perform Ḥaj or ‘Umrah. After entering this state, a pilgrim is not allowed sexual intercourse, use of perfumes, wearing sewn clothes, hunting or killing wild animals, etc. Iḥram comes to an end after the rites of Haj or ‘Umrah are completed. A Muslim woman is not required to wear any particular dress or colour but her clothing should cover her satr (q.v.). Moreover, she is not allowed to cover her face or wear gloves. All other requirements of Iḥrām will also apply to a Muslim woman — see “Ḥaj and ‘Umrah” in Appendix D; footnotes to 5:94, 22:29.

to act or behave with goodness, do charity. As an Islāmic term, it has two meanings: first, to be good and equitable towards others (16:90), to give more than one owes and take less than what is owed to one. This is a general injunction for all Muslims at all times. Second, to worship Allāh with all sincerity and faithfulness. This is explained in a ḥadīth as follows: “Worship Allāh as if you see Him and if you do not see him, He sees you,” i.e., pray to Allāh with total humility, submission and sincerity (Aṣfahānī 119, Jaṣṣāṣ 2/388; Qurṭubī 10/166; Ibn Kathīr 2/395; Lisān 13/117; Lane 2/570).

To collect, gather, assemble, congregate, decide collectively. As an Islāmic term, Ijmā‘ means the consensus of Islāmic scholars in a certain age on any matter about which there is no explicit rule in Islām – see also Ijtihād (Aṣfahānī 97; Lisān 8/53-8; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/103f; Lane 2/455).

means to strive and make all possible efforts to achieve something. As an Islāmic term, Ijtihād means an accomplished Islāmic scholar’s utmost effort to find an answer or solution to a new issue or problem about which there is no clear instruction in Islām’s primary sources viz., the Qur’ān, Sunnah, (previous) consensus of Islāmic scholars and (previously agreed) analogy (qiyās) by Islāmic scholars. There can be no Ijtihād about established issues like the daily five-time-prayers, Zakāt, fasting during Ramaḍān, prohibition of alcohol, usury, adultery, stealing etc. Only accomplished Islāmic scholars with deep knowledge of Islām’s primary sources are allowed to exercise Ijtihād in all issues or in a specific field. The gates of general Ijtihād were closed by Muslim scholars in the seventh century Hijri, following the collapse of the Islāmic state at the hands of foreign invaders (the Abbasid caliphate was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258 CE). Muslim scholars feared that invaders might misuse the path of Ijtihād to intervene in religious issues. Another reason was the rigid taqlīd (q.v.) or following of some fiqhī schools that had become established by that time. Some scholars feared that if Ijtihād remained permissible, the opinions and status of their fiqhī schools might be challenged in future. Despite this, some scholars continued to do limited ijtihād within their schools of fiqh (q.v.). In the last two centuries, Muslim scholars have started exercising individual Ijtihād. This is the Sunnī position. The Twelver Shī‘ah (Al-Shī‘ah al-Ithnā ‘Asharīyah) have kept the doors of Ijtihād open and this has led to revolutionary interpretations like the concept of Wilāyat al-Faqīh (Guardianship of the Jurist) which allowed the emergence of the Islāmic Republic in Iran while the traditional (Akhbārī) Shī‘ah scholars considered all political power illegitimate in the absence of the Imām (Aṣfahānī 101; Qurṭubī 3/50; Lisān 3/135; Lane 2/473).

means leader and exemplar. It is derived from the root a-m-m meaning to lead. An imām is a person followed by a group or community. As an Islāmic term, Imām means a ruler or the leader of congregational prayers in a mosque. The founders and leaders of Fiqh (q.v.) schools are also called “Imāms.” Shī‘ah call their religious leaders from the progeny of ‘Alī Ibn ‘Abī Ṭālib and Sayyidah Fāṭimah as “Imāms” who were 12 according the Twelver Shī‘ah, but only (the first) five according to the Zaydīs and (the first) seven according to the Ismā‘īlīs (Aṣfahānī 24; Ibn Kathīr 1/170; Kashshāf 95; Qurṭubī 10/296f; Lisān 12/24f; Lane 1/91).

leadership; Imām: leader of group, community. As an Islāmic term, Imāmah means to lead the Muslim community in both worldly and religious matters. It is a synonym of Khilāfah (q.v.). An Imām or Khalīfah must be a learned, mujtahid scholar of Islām, must be brave and must have strong opinions and character so that he is not influenced or swayed in the course of the application of law. Originally, it was held that an Imām must be from the Quraysh tribe, but this was later abandoned. Shī‘ah believe that the Imām must be a progeny of Alī and his wife, Sayyidah Fāṭimah, daughter of the Prophet, and that an Imām is ma‘ṣūm (infallible). To the Sunnīs, an Imām is either selected by the Prophet or his successor or is elected by the electoral college of the community (ahl al-ḥall wa’l-‘aqd – q.v.). Also derived from the same root is al-Imāmīyah which is the name of a Shī‘ah sect that believes that ‘Alī was expressly appointed by the Prophet as his successor (Aṣfahānī 24; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/260f; Qurṭubī 1/263f; Lisān 12/24f; Lane 1/91).

see Shī‘ah

see Mīrāth

see Terrorism.

see Riddah

correction, reform.

oral acceptance of Islām as one’s faith. Oral testimony (Shahadah, q.v.) is the first stage of Islām or belief and may be only outward, by tongue (49:14). The second or higher stage of belief is Imān (q.v.) which is to believe in your heart. Islām is a verbal noun derived from the root s-l-m which means to be safe or complete or secure or seek peace. In its transitive form, it means to submit, accept. Islām necessitates belief in and following in one’s life the Five Pillars of Islām (q.v.). (Aṣfahānī 239-41; Lisān 12/289-95, Lane 4/1413, 1416).

see Five Pillars of Islām.

men 70:22; women: 60:12.

attribution, verifiable chain of narrators. It is derived from the root s-n-d which means to back or support. As an Islāmic term, Isnād means ascription or attribution of a ḥadīth (q.v.) to the Prophet through an unbreakable chain of narrators (ruwāt, singular: rāwī) in which the earliest, i.e., closest to the Prophet, would say that he heard or saw him saying or doing this. If a chain is broken or interrupted where there is no proof that that particular narrator ever met in person the next narrator in the chain, such a ḥadīth is called Mursal (hanging) or Munqati‘ (interrupted or broken). A “hanging” or “interrupted” ḥadīth is less reliable. Biographies of the narrators of ḥadīth is a distinct discipline called ‘Ilm al-Rijāl (Science of Men) under which the lives of all narrators of the early generations after Islām were meticulously researched and preserved in multi-volume works. Minute details about hundreds of thousands of men and women were collected and preserved, forming a rare collection of the biography of any person who narrated a ḥadīth. A narrator found lying even once in his life-time was declared unreliable and his or her narration declared weak or abandoned. The more a particular ḥadīth is narrated through numerous chains, the more reliable it is (Lisān 3/220f; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/984; Lane 4/1443f).

see Mi‘rāj; see also Isrā’ and Mi‘raj in Appendix A.

Jewish tales. These are reports narrated mostly by four persons Ka‘b al-Aḥbār (a Yemeni Jew who converted to Islām, d. 32 AH), ‘Abdullāh ibn Salām (a Madīnah Jewish scholar who converted to Islām, d. 43 AH), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 114 AH) and ‘Abd al-Malik ibn ‘Abd al-‘Azīz ibn Jurayj (d. 150 AH). These reports are mostly based on tales told by the Jews of Arabia and sometimes by the Christians of Arabia and neighbouring countries like Abyssinia. Acceptance and narration of such reports was based on the Prophet’s saying, “Do not approve them or deny them” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Bāb mā yajūz min tafsīr al-Tawrāh, ḥadīth 7542). These tales are about pre-Islāmic events and personalities like Prophets Ādam, Ibrāhīm, Dā’ūd, Mūsa, ‘Īsa etc. that are only briefly touched by the Qur’ān. Hence, Muslims were naturally eager to know more about them. The Isrā’īlīyyāt have been divided into three categories: 1. What is supported by the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth. Such reports are acceptable. 2. What is obviously a lie like the claim about Prophet Dā’ūd that he sent one of his soldiers to war so that the latter is killed and the Prophet could marry his widow (see the footnote to 38:21 and the Introduction). 3. Reports about which nothing can be said with certainty. These should not be approved or denied (Kashshāf 21; Ibn Kathīr 1/14). Some scholars, like Ṭabarī in his tafsīr, copiously narrated Isrā’īlīyyāt while Ibn Kathīr rejected them in his tafsīr. Ḥadīth scholars were most vehement in rejecting these stories as their narrators of these tales did not live up to the high standards set by the muḥaddiths for narrators of ḥadīths. Ibn Kathīr said in his tafsīr that “most of these tales offer no benefit of religious nature” (Ibn Kathīr 1/14). Therefore, he mostly overlooked Isrā’īlīyyāt in his tafsīr saying that it’s a “waste of time” and that these “consist mostly of lies because they do not differentiate between the correct and the doubtful” (Ibn Kathīr (2) 5/347f). These tales have been used by Muslim historians and ṣūfīs in their epistles. Their importance or charm lies in the fact that they offer detailed information about events and personalities that are only briefly touched in the Qur’ān because the intent of the Qur’ān is not to offer a historical record but to use them to admonish and warn. Isrā’īlīyyāt stories were accepted or condoned because they did not touch on the Islāmic Shari‘ah. A leading authority has observed that “some of these tales are true while most of them is based on lies forged by their irreligious and misguided people” (Ibn Kathīr 2/147).

to beg for forgiveness. As an Islāmic term, it means to seek forgiveness and pardon from Allāh after committing any sin or lapse. Allāh loves a servant who seeks His forgiveness even if he very often commits sins and lapses. Among the names or attributes of Allāh are Ghaffār and Ghafūr, both superlative nouns meaning very forgiving. They derived from the same root (gh-f-r) from which Istighfār or Maghfirah (forgiveness) are derived (Aṣfahānī 362; Ibn Kathīr 1/417; Kashshāf 195; Qurṭubī 4/211-3; Lane 6/2274).

sin, crime, fault, offence, an act of disobedience for which one deserves punishment, an unlawful deed which deprives one of recompense but which is exclusive of the punishments called Ḥadd (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 10; Jurjānī, Ta‘rīfāt 11; Qurṭubī 7/201; Ibn Kathīr 2/18; Kashshāf 362; Lane 1/22).

Hell, Fire. As an Islāmic term, it means Hell which will be the eternal abode in the Hereafter of the wicked sinners, arrogant tyrants and tormentors of innocent people. This word has been used 78 times in the Qur’ān (e.g., 2:206, 3:12 etc.). Other words used for Hell in the Qur’ān are al-Nār (e.g., 2:24), al-Ḥarīq (e.g., 3:181), Saqar (e.g., 54:48), al-Sa‘īr (e.g., 22:4) and al-Jaḥīm (e.g., 2:119). The vastness of Hell is immeasurable (50:30). People consigned to Hell will not live or die. They will be given boiling hot water to drink and pus to eat (Aṣfahānī 88, 102, 114, 233, 235, 501; Ibn Kathīr 2/280, 493, 3/372f; Qurṭubī 1/237, 4/295, 5/54, 17/18f; Lisān 10/43, 4/365, 372, 12/84, 112; Lane 8/2865).

Ignorance. As an Islāmic term, it means the pre-Islāmic state and times in Arabia when people had forgotten all about the faith propagated by Prophets Ibrāhīm and Ismā‘īl and only some, called Ḥunafā’, had retained two facets of that faith, viz., circumcision of male babies and pilgrimage to the Ka‘bah in Makkah while following their manmade ideas of polytheism and misplaced pride in their genealogy, etc. Muslims, especially women, are forbidden to follow Jāhilīyah customs (Aṣfahānī 102; Ibn Kathīr 1/695, 3/47; Kashshāf 855; Qurṭubī 14/180; Lisān 11/129f; Lane 2/477f).

uncleanliness. As an Islāmic term, it means an uncleanliness requiring total ablution, i.e., ghusl (q.v.) after having sexual contact with one’s spouse or discharging semen. Such a person is not allowed to offer prayers until he/she bathes (5:6) or performs Tayammum (q.v.) in case of non-availability or scarcity of water or an illness which may be aggravated as a result of ghusl – see also Najāsah (Aṣfahānī 90f; Qurṭubī 5/204; Lisān 1/289; Lane 2/464-7).

Garden, orchard, walled garden, fruit garden. As an Islāmic terminology, it means Paradise about which it is said in ḥadīth that it is as wide as the heavens and earth; life in it is eternal; it contains all kinds of means of eternal bliss and comfort for the servants of Allāh who will be awarded a place therein for their good deeds and sacrifices in this world for the sake of Allāh. Paradise is said to consist of seven areas, the highest of which is called al-Firdaws (Aṣfahānī 98; Qurṭubī 1/239; Ibn Kathīr 1/414-7, 2/181f, 370; Lane 2/463). The minimum required to enter Paradise is to offer the five daily prayers, fast during Ramaḍān, pay Zakāt and avoid the seven Major Sins (q.v.). The gates of Paradise will be opened for such a person and he will be told, “Enter in peace!” (Ṭabarī 5/25f). For Major Sins, see the footnote to 42:37; Kabā’ir below and Appendix E.

requital, recompense, reward, punishment. In the Qur’ān, Jazā’ is used for the requital of both good and bad deeds (6:84; 23:111; 34:17; 76:12; etc). Yawm al-Jazā’ is another name for the Day of Judgement (Aṣfahānī 93; Lisān 14/143-5; Lane 2/422).

means using or exercising one’s utmost power, effort and ability to achieve an objective. As a religious term, it means to fight in the path of Allāh to defend Islām and Muslims. “Jihād,” meaning fighting against enemies, was prohibited before the Prophet’s Hijrah (q.v.) to Madīnah. Jihād is a farḍ kifāyah, an obligatory duty, which will be fulfilled if some undertake it, but if none undertake it, all will be considered sinners. The Prophet said, Jihād is of two kinds: Al-Jihād al-Akbar (The Greater Jihād) and Al-Jihād al-Aṣghar (The Lesser Jihād). The first is against one’s own lusts and shortcomings, while the second is against an enemy. By their nature, the first is perpetual until one’s death while the second is temporary. A Jihād can be declared only by a legitimate Muslim ruler: against internal enemies who take up arms against the Muslim state or Muslims, or a foreign enemy that either actively persecutes Muslims in religious matters within its borders or declares war against an Islāmic state or if there is incontrovertible proof that the foreign power is planning to attack the Islāmic state. But no war can be declared by an Islāmic state against a state or group if the latter has a treaty with the Islāmic state (4:90, 8:72, 9:4, 60:8). In such a case, the Islāmic state will have to openly revoke the existing agreement before it takes any military action against a state or group persecuting Muslims in matters of religion. Private persons and non-state actors are not allowed to declare Jihād. Jihād is allowed for the sole purpose of ensuring freedom to follow Islām (2:193). In other words, Jihād is not allowed against a country and community where Muslims are free to observe their religious duties. Jihād is allowed only against those who fight Muslims (2:190). In case of repelling aggression, Muslims are enjoined to repel only to the extent of the aggression (2:194). A Muslim state is not obliged to help persecuted Muslims in another state if a treaty exists with that state. Moreover, a Muslim state is obliged to help Muslims in a non-Muslim state only if the persecution is religious (8:72; 60:8). During war, it is forbidden to touch women, children, people attached to religious places and those who are unable to fight. (Aṣfahānī 101; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/311-17; Qurṭubī 3/50; Lisān 3/133-5; Lane 2/473) – see also the footnotes to 2:193, 48:17.

is a species created by Allāh out of Fire, while angels were created out of Light and humans out of clay or dust. Like humans, Jinns are both good and evil. Some Jinns listened to the Qur’ān and believed in Islām (72:1). Iblīs (also called ‘Azāzīl) was the head of the Jinn until he disobeyed Allāh (7:12, 17:61, 38:76) for which he was cursed and banished from the Heaven to the Earth where he has respite, until the end of life on earth, to misguide humans (15:39, 38:82) (Ibn Kathīr 2/361, 3/418; Qurṭubī 8/23f, 17/161; Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāyah wa‘l-Nihāyah 1/55f, 58; Lane 2/462, 464) – see also the footnote to 72:1.

an annual tax paid by non-Muslim subjects of a Muslim state (see Ahl al-Dhimmah). It is mentioned in the Qur’ān (9:29) without specifying an amount. It is left to the rulers to determine its quantum as per the ability of people to pay. It is levied for the protection provided to the lives and properties of the non-Muslim subjects. This tax is paid only by healthy men who are capable of fighting. There is no Jizyah on women, children, the elderly, disabled people, the indigent, blind, mentally disturbed, slaves and religious people such as priests and monks. If its amount was fixed at the time of the conquest of a land, it would stay the same forever. Jizyah cannot be levied retroactively or for years the authorities forgot or failed to collect it, in which case Jizyah will be payable only for the current year. Moreover, there is no Jizyah if a non-Muslim man volunteers to fight in the Muslim army. Jurists (fuqahā’) made three categories of Jizyah-paying dhimmīs (protected people): a) wealthy men like the money-changers, merchants and physicians, who were charged at 48 dirhams (a silver coin); b) ordinary men were charged at 24 dirhams and c) poor men, e.g., tillers, menial workers like tailors, shoe-makers, butchers and dyers, etc. were charged at 12 dirhams per year. At current silver prices, as on 28 Sept., 2021, this amounted to US$ 142.8 (Indian Rs 10,510) for the wealthy; US$ 51.40 (Indian Rs 3805) for the average; and US$ 25.70 (Rs 1,902.61) for the poor, per year, payable after two months of the passage of the assessed year. No other tax was levied on the dhimmīs while Muslims had to pay Zakāt at the rates of 20 percent, 10 percent, and 2.5 percent for various categories of income and wealth (Aṣfahānī 93; Jaṣṣāṣ 3/123-33; Abū Yūsuf, Kitāb al-Kharāj 122-4; Al-Māwardī, Al-Aḥkām al-Sulṭānīyah 221; Lane 2/422). Jizyah has long been abolished in Muslim states. None of the 58 Muslim states today levies any such tax as all citizens are taxed in a uniform manner. Muslim states do not levy Zakāt (q.v.) either which is left to the individual to pay as he wishes and to whom he wishes. In addition to Jizyah, owners of agricultural lands and orchards had to pay a land tax (Kharāj – q.v.) on the produce of the land. This, too, is now abandoned by all Muslim states.

see the footnote to 2:158.

is a major responsibility of Muslim individuals and society. Justice must be done even against oneself: 4:135, 4:58, 5:8.

major sins like shirk (q.v.), murder, adultery, fornication, deserting an army mobilised to fight an enemy of Muslims, etc. In general, Kabīrah is every sin mentioned in the Qur’ān coupled with the warning of Allāh’s wrath or punishment (‘adhāb), or curse or warning of Hell-fire (Aṣfahānī 421; Qurṭubī 1/159f; Lisān 5/128f; Lane 7/2586f) – see the footnote to 42:37.

expiation. It is derived from the root k-f-r, which means to cover and conceal. As an Islāmic term, Kaffārah means expiation by way of freeing a slave (which is no longer applicable after the universal abolition of slavery) or to fast for a certain period (cf. 5:89) or to feed a certain number of poor people the same food that one normally partakes. Kaffārah is offered for certain oaths (2:225, 5:89, 66:2), Ẓihār (q.v.), killing by mistake (4:92), failure to keep an obligatory fast (2:184), for certain sins and for shaving one’s head before his sacrifice is offered at the end of Ḥaj (2:196) and for failing to honour an oath. There is no Kaffārah for useless swearings that are uttered habitually (2:225) though they are not desirable — see also the footnote to 5:89 (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/278-86, 566-77; Lisān 5/148f, 12/129; Aṣfahānī 435; Lane 7/2620f).

disbeliever, unbeliever, Rejecter – see Kufr

See the footnote to 18:9.

a legator who has no son or father; or an inheritor of such a person. This term is used for the legator as well as the heir(s) other than the legator’s son and father. Caliph ‘Umar considered it, along with Khilāfah and Ribā, as one of the three most difficult Islāmic terms. In this case, in the absence of a son or father, other relatives will inherit his wealth and properties (see Mīrāth in this Appendix; the footnote to 4:12) (Aṣfahānī 437; Jaṣṣāṣ 2/108-12; Ibn Kathīr 1/615-7, 1/473; Qurṭubī 5/77f, 10/150; Kashshāf 225; Lisān 11/592-4; Lane 8/3002).

wonderworking. It is the name given to Miracles performed by a saint (walī, pl. awliyā’), while a Miracle performed by a Prophet is called Mu‘jizah. A Prophet’s Miracle is an open event for all to see and is done to support his claim to Prophethood while a karāmah of a saint is unseen and does not support any claim (Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1360; Qurṭubī 13/28-32; Lane 8/2999).

, anglicized as Caliph, means a successor or vicegerent or vice-agent. It is derived from the root kh-l-f, which means to succeed, follow. The verbal noun derived from this root is Khilāfah which is the system or office of the Khalīfah. As an Islāmic term, Khalīfah means the successor to the Prophet in his capacity as head of State but not as a prophet. The first Khalīfah was Abū Bakr, followed by ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān and ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib. The period of these four khalīfahs is called Al-Khilāfah al-Rāshidah (The Rightly-Guided Khilāfah). Later Muslim rulers of the Umawī (Umayyad) and ‘Abbāsī (Abbasid) khilāfahs were also called “Khalīfahs” but effectively they were kings. The epithet of “Khalīfah” has also been used in the Qur’ān for the Prophets Ādam and Dā’ūd or for the human race, which is vicegerent of Allāh on His earth (2:30, 7:69, 7:74, 27:62, 38:26) (Aṣfahānī 155; Ibn Kathīr 1/100; Lisān 9/83f; Lane 2/797f).

liquor, wine, alcohol. Basically, khamr (root kh-m-r) means to cover and conceal. Liquor is called khamr because it conceals the brain or its drinker’s thinking capacity. There is a consensus that even a small quantity of a drink is forbidden if in large quantities it intoxicates. An exception is made if such a substance is taken as a medicine or is used in a medicine. In Islām, khamr was forbidden over three stages: firstly, it was said that there are some benefits in khamr but its sin is greater (2:219); secondly, the believers were told not to approach prayers in a state of intoxication (4:43); thirdly, they were told that khamr (among other things) is “an abomination of the Shayṭān’s handiwork …. Will you then not abstain?” (5:90f). After this, Muslims in Madīnah threw away all their liquor on the streets and broke its containers. There is a punishment for drinking khamr (see Ḥadd) (Aṣfahānī 159; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/390-2, 393f; Ibn Kathīr 1/511, 262, 724-30; Qurṭubī 5/201f, 6/285; Kashshāf 127; Lisān 4/254f; Lane 2/808).

Tax levied on the produce of agricultural lands and orchards. It was introduced by Caliph ‘Umar after the conquest of the Sawād land (the present-day Iraq) and Al-Ahwāz (in the present-day Iran). Soldiers of the conquering army wanted the land to be treated as Ghanīmah (q.v.) and as such distributed among them, but the Caliph refused, saying “If I do that, what will be left for the coming generations?” Hence, he left the land in the hands of the inhabitants and fixed a tax on the produce as follows: 2.5 percent (rub‘ al-‘ushr) of the produce from the Muslims, two percent (khums al-‘ushr) from Ahl al-Dhimmah (q.v.) and ten percent (‘ushr) from aliens who enter Muslim lands with permission (amān). In comparison, tax (Zakāt) taken from Muslims on fruit orchards is ten percent (‘ushr) on irrigated land and 20 percent (khums) on un-irrigated land. The system of Kharāj (q.v.), like Jizyah (q.v.), has long been abandoned by Muslim states. Now equal taxes are levied on all citizens in all the 58 Muslim states where, normally, no taxes are levied on agricultural produce while subsidies are paid to farmers in some countries to support them (Aṣfahānī 145; Abū Yūsuf, Kitāb al-Kharāj 28, 69, 120, 122, 133; Qurṭubī 11/59; Lisān 2/251f; Lane 2/719, 5/2051).

the Last of the Prophets; the Seal of the Prophets. Khātam means both a seal and the last. It has also been read as Khātim which also means last and final. There are many ḥadīths making it clear that Prophet Muḥammad was the last Prophet of Allāh and that no new prophet would come after him. Prophet ‘Īsa, who will return to this world before the end of time, will come as a follower of the Prophet of Islām and the Sharī‘ah of Islām. This is a basic tenet of Islām. One who rejects that Muḥammad was the last prophet of Allāh is not considered a Muslim (Aṣfahānī 142f; Qurṭubī 14/194-7; Kashshāf 858; Ibn Kathīr 1/185, 3/55; Lisān 12/164f; Lane 2/703) – see also the footnote to 33:40.

rebels. It is derived from kh-r-j which means to go out, rebel. As an Islāmic terminology, it is used for a number of groups who first appeared during the Caliphate of ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān. Later, they became a distinct group calling themselves Al-Muḥakkimah (People of Arbitration) for their rejection of the Caliph ‘Ali’s acceptance of arbitration (taḥkīm) to settle the dispute with Mu‘āwiyah, the rebel governor of Syria, after the Battle of Ṣiffīn in July 657 CE. Saying that arbitration in a matter of religion is invalid, the Khawārij raised their slogan “La ḥukma illa-Lāh (No rule [is valid] but Allāh’s). They pronounced a Muslim committing sins as “kāfir” (q.v.), validated killing such Muslims and enslaving their wives and plundering their properties as fa’y (q.v.). They believed in shunning “deviant” Muslim communities and formed their own communities in far-away places and mountainous areas. They called themselves as Al-Shurāth (who sold themselves to Allāh; which is based on 2:207) or Jamā‘at al-Mu’minīn (Group of the Believers) but were called Khawārij (rebels) by Muslims for their rebellion and wars against Caliph ‘Ali and Umayyad rulers. The Khawārij were mostly annihilated in subsequent battles during the Umayyad period. Over the years, they were divided into seven groups, including the Mu‘tazilites (q.v.). Only remnants of one of these groups, Ibāḍīyyah, are still found today in Oman and parts of North Africa. The Ibāḍīyyah were the most moderate of these factions and are now, practically, a part of the Sunnīs. The Khawārij ideology has been revived in recent decades in Egypt by groups like the Jamā‘at al-Takfīr wa’l-Hijrah (they called themselves Jamā‘at Al-Muslimīn) which was responsible for the kidnapping and murder of the Minister of Awqāf Shaykh Ḥusayn al-Daḥabī in July 1977. The group was decimated and dispersed by the Egyptian government. It was later revived as Tanẓīm al-Jihād (Jihad Organisation) whose recruits killed President Anwar Sadat in October 1981. It too was wiped out by the Egyptian government. The so-called “Islāmic State” in Iraq and Syria (ISIS or IS or Daesh) is the latest group believing in the old Khawārij ideology that has harmed Islām and Muslims by preaching and practising an extremist ideology that was never accepted by mainstream Islām (Lisān 2/251; Aṣfahānī 146; Ibn Kathīr 1/353; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/790; Lane 2/720).

a wise man who was accompanied by Prophet Mūsā in a journey (18:85) – see the footnote to 18:65.

Persian and Urdu for Allāh (q.v.).

Divorce initiated by the wife — see the footnote to 65:1.

see Kharāj, Zakāt.

sermon

disbelief, rejection of the divine Message – see the footnote to 2:6.

see Qiṣāṣ

The Tablet Secure or Preserved or Guarded. The Qur’ān says that its original text is inscribed and secured in Al-Lawḥ al-Maḥfūẓ (85:22). It is a record kept safe and secure in the heavens and is the repository of Allāh’s decrees and messages for Mankind. The Qur’ān is inscribed from that secure record (Aṣfahānī 124, 456; Ibn Kathīr 3/668; Qurṭubī 19/296; Lisān 2/584, 7/441; Lane 7/2680).

mutual cursing. It is derived from the root l-‘a-n which means to curse. As an Islāmic term, Li‘ān is a procedure that is resorted to, in the presence of the ruler or the Qāḍī, when a husband accuses his wife of adultery (24:6) but fails to produce four witnesses to support his claim for which, in the normal course, he would be sentenced to a punishment of 80 lashes and his wife would be separated from him. To escape this punishment, he can opt for Li‘ān whereby he, in front of his wife and the ruler or the Qāḍī, would say four times, “I witness by Allāh that she committed adultery with such and such person, and I am truthful in my accusation.” The fifth time he will say, “Let curse of Allāh be on me if I am lying.” In her turn, the wife will say four times, “I witness by Allāh that he is a liar in his accusing me of adultery.” The fifth time, she will say, “Let the curse of Allāh be on me if he is truthful.” As soon as she says this, she is separated from him forever and, if she is pregnant, the child in her womb will be attributed to her and not to her husband. But if the husband, after levelling such an accusation, refuses to do Li‘ān, he will be punished for Qaḍf (q.v.). Similarly, if the wife refuses to do Li‘ān, she will be punished for adultery. But if both take part in Li‘ān, neither will be punished and they will be separated and he is not to marry her ever again. The rule for an accuser other than the wife’s husband is different – see Qaḍf (Aṣfahānī 451; Jaṣṣāṣ 3/372-8,386-400; Ibn Kathīr, 2/637; Kashshāf 720; Lisān 13/387f).

see Khamr

Forgiveness – see Istighfār

The Guided Leader, the Leader directed by Allāh to Truth. According to ḥadīths of the Prophet, the “Mahdī” will appear towards the end of time; he will be from the household of the Prophet and his name and the name of his father will be the same as the Prophet’s. He will live five or seven or nine years after proclaiming himself Mahdi. He will fill the world with justice and will be very generous (Lisān 15/354; Ibn Kathīr 1/602; Lane 8/3042).

dowry or the wedding gift given to a woman by her husband at the time of marriage. This is obligatory in Islām though its amount is left to be determined by the financial status of the husband. During the time of the Prophet and the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, the minimum dowry was ten dirhams though there is no upper limit. If a husband divorces his wife before consummation of marriage, he is obliged to pay her half of the agreed dowry (2:237). The dowry must be in monetary or property terms; it cannot be in the shape of allowing the wife to benefit from something. Once Caliph ‘Umar exhorted people during a sermon not to pay excessive dowries. An old woman stood up and said, “Commander of the Faithful! How do you deny us what Allāh has entitled us to. Has He not said, ‘even if you had given the latter [wife] a treasure heaped up [of gold] for dower, take back not the least bit of it’ (4:20).” ‘Umar replied, speaking to his companions, “You heard what I said and did not contradict it, but a woman who is not the most knowledgeable of the women has corrected me!” It is lawful for a husband to enjoy her wife’s dowry if she willingly allows him to (4:4). There is no concept in Islām of dowry paid by the bride or her family to the husband, as is rampant in the South Asian subcontinent which is an influence of local customs. This is against the spirit of Islām which puts the whole burden of marriage and upkeep of the family home on the husband but a woman can contribute to it willingly and without any pressure or coercion (Aṣfahānī 278; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/526-36, 2/73-6, 2/176f; Kashshāf 218f; Lisān 5/184, 10/197; 228; Lane 7/2740).

see the footnote to 42:37.

foul, abominable, detested. Makrūh is every act that is disliked in Islām and the believer is advised to shun it, but it is not considered a sin. Some examples are: conducting commerce activity after the adhān (q.v.) of the Friday prayers; having unnecessary conversations in the mosque; engaging in discussions after the ‘Isha prayer (because it leads to sleeping late and missing the Fajr prayer); wasting water for bathing and wuḍū’; consuming garlic before going to the mosque; swearing habitually; biting nails; and slaughtering an animal for food in front of other animals (Aṣfahānī 429f; Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1637; Lane 8/3000).

angels. They are one of three special species created by Allāh. The other two are Jinns and humans. Angels were created from light, Jinns from fire and humans from clay. While both Jinns and humans have good and evil people, angels are obedient servants of Allāh. Some of them hold up the Divine Throne, some encircle it and some take care of Paradise and Hell, others record the deeds and misdeeds of each human being (82:11), and so on. Some of them, like Jibrīl, Mīkā’īl, Isrāfīl and ‘Izrā‘īl, are entrusted with major tasks; they are described in the Qur’ān as Rūḥ (2:87, 253; 5:110; 16:102; 19:17; 26:193) (Qurṭubī 1/289; Kashshāf 88; Ibn Kathīr 1/140, 2/319; Lane 1/82).

Mustaḥabb

mother of Prophet Īsā – see the footnote to 2:87.

goodness, gentleness, beneficence, kindness, liberality, just, equitable, reasonable, suitable, kind. As an Islāmic term, Ma‘rūf means a good act to fellow humans or animals that is done in obedience of Allāh and with the intention of winning His pleasure and doing good to people and other living beings. Its antonym is munkar (q.v.). It is an obligation of every Muslim to enjoin others to do ma‘rūf and prohibit them from doing munkar (3:110; 9:67, 112; 22:41; 31:17) (Aṣfahānī 331f; Qurṭubī 4/649, 7/347; Kashshāf 401; Ibn Kathīr 1/400, 2/90; Lisān 9/239f; Lane 5/2014).

See Sha‘ā’ir

disobedience, rebellion; antonym of Ṭā‘ah (obedience). As an Islāmic term, Ma‘ṣyah means wilful disobedience of Allāh’s command(s). It is also used for the disobedience of the order of a ruler (Aṣfahānī 337; Ibn Kathīr 3/52; Lisān 15/67; Lane 5/2069).

Gambling. Derived from the root y-s-r which means to be easy, Maysir means gambling or getting money without toil. In pre-Islāmic times, Maysir was a game of headless and unfeathered arrows played by a group of ten men who slaughtered a camel and divided it into portions; the winners in the game would take the meat and the losers would foot the bill of the slaughtered camel. Various other games like Nard (backgammon) and Shaṭranj (chess) were added to the list of Maysir after the Arab conquest of Persia. In general, any form of gambling, where a group plays a game and only one or a few of them win, while others lose their money, is forbidden and unlawful (Kashshāf 127f; Ibn Kathīr 1/723; Lisān 5/298f; Lane 8/2979) – see the footnote to 2:219.

see Ḥayḍ

ladder, stairs. It is derived from the root ‘a-r-j, which means to ascend, go up. As an Islāmic term, it refers to the Prophet’s ascension to the Heavens while he was still in Makkah, in Rajab, the 3rd year before Hijrah (620 CE). This journey consisted of two parts: Isrā’ (night journey) from the Sacred Mosque in Makkah to “The Farthest Mosque,” i.e., the spot where Prophet Sulaymān had built his temple and where the Aqsa Mosque stands today (see the footnote to 17:1). This journey took place, in the company of the Archangel Jibrīl, on a winged white steed called “Al-Burāq.” In Jerusalem, the Prophet led previous Messengers of Allāh in a prayer, then he ascended to the Heaven in the company of the Archangel Jibrīl. The Prophet’s visit to the Heavens is called Al-Mi‘rāj. There, he met previous Prophets, saw Paradise and Hell and came close to the holy Lote-Tree beyond which the Throne of Allāh is located; and saw Archangel Jibrīl face to face (53:17). A majority of Muslim scholars hold that the Isrā’ to Jerusalem was physical while the journey to the Heaven was spiritual – see also the footnote to 17:1; Appendix A) (Qurṭubī 10/204-12; Ibn Kathīr 2/407-18; Kashshāf 589; Lisān 14/382; Lane 4/1355f, 5/1997).

It is normal for Muslims to live as minorities in non-Muslim societies. Prophet Yūsuf asked and worked as the minister of supplies under the Pharaoh (12:54). Almost all the Prophets of Allāh, with the possible exception of Prophet-Kings Dā’ūd and Sulaymān, lived in societies dominated by non-Muslims. Prophet Muḥammad and his followers lived in Makkah for 13 years as a minority. Muslims migrated twice to Abyssinia to live there under a non-Muslim ruler. These migrants came to Madīnah after the Prophet migrated there. Even in Madīnah, before the Conquest of Makkah, Muslims lived only as one of the groups there, viz., along with non-Muslim Arabs and Jews. Later, Muslims lived for centuries in Spain and Sicily under non-Muslim rulers. At present, Muslims live in almost all countries of the world, over two-thirds of which are governed by non-Muslims. It is wrong to claim that Muslims should live only in Muslim-ruled countries. Muslims are required to migrate out of non-Muslim societies only if they face religious persecution (4:97).

Mu‘jizah

inheritance. It is derived from the root w-r-th which means to inherit. Al-Wārith (The Inheritor) is one of the 99 names or attributes of Allāh (see Appendix B). As an Islāmic term, Mīrāth means the inheritance, or estate, left by a decedent. After paying any debt or trust kept in the custody of the deceased and meeting his funeral expenses, the rest will be divided among his/her close relatives according to the āyahs 4:7, viz., son, grandson, father, grandfather, brother, son of the brother, uncle, son of the uncle, husband, daughter, daughter of the son, mother, grandmother, sister and wife. Pre-Islām Arabs used to give Mīrāth only to the adult son of the deceased. Islām ordained Mīrath for both the sons and the daughters, while a dying person is allowed to do Waṣīyyah (q.v.) to non-heirs of only up to one-third of his property. A son gets two portions of the Mīrāth, while a daughter gets one portion because it is the duty of the son to run the household and shoulder all responsibilities while a woman, daughter or wife etc., are not required to make any financial contribution to the household (Aṣfahānī 1519; Ibn Kathīr 1/469f; Qurṭubī 5/55-75; Jaṣṣāṣ 2/94-100; Kashshāf 224; Lisān 2/199-201; Lane 8/2934).

lowly, submissive, weak. As an Islāmic term, Miskīn means a poor person who does not beg as opposed to Faqīr, a poor person who begs. Both Miskīn and Faqīr have a share in Zakāt (q.v.) levied on wealthy Muslims (9:60, 2:273) (Aṣfahānī 237; Lisān 13/214f; Jaṣṣāṣ 3/157-9; Lane 4/1393).

see Adhān

allowed, lawful. Mubāḥ is anything that is not unlawful (ḥarām), and which is not enjoined upon a Muslim, in which case it would be his duty (farḍ, wājib) to observe it like Ṣalāt, Zakāt and Ḥaj etc. Thus, Mubāḥ is anything or any act that is neither ḥarām nor farḍ or wājib, like eating any kind of lawful food or wearing any dress covering one’s satr (q.v.) or trading in any lawful commodity or travelling etc., as long as one does not commit a sin (Ibn Kathīr 1/391, 1/719, 2/18; Qurṭubī 4/135, 6/34f, 262; 7/196-200; Kashshāf 306; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/78f; Lisān 2/416, 11/167; Lane 1/273f).

Prayer by two disputing parties to Allāh to curse the lying party. This is the last resort to solve a contentious issue of serious nature. The Prophet announced his readiness for Mubāhalah when the delegation of the Christians of Najrān refused to accept him as the Messenger of Allāh, insisting that ‘Īsā was the Son of God. The Christian delegation, on the advice of their bishop, refused to take part in the Mubāhalah and withdrew saying, “We accept you with your religion and we remain steadfast with ours” (Aṣfahānī 63; Jaṣṣāṣ 2/18; Ṭabarī 3/209; Ibn Kathīr 1/378; Kashshāf 175; Lisān 11/72; Lane 1/267) – see also the footnote to 3:61.

see Ḥadīth

see Hijrah

7.

Miracle. It is an extraordinary act that can’t be explained by the laws of nature. It is performed by a Prophet of Allāh as a proof of his prophethood. For an act to be a Miracle, it should be (1) an act of Allāh, (2) extraordinary, (3) irresistible, (4) it is presented by a person claiming to be a Prophet/Messenger of Allāh as a proof of his claim, (5) It should support his claim, (6) It should not disprove his claim, (7) The Miracle should not precede the claim of prophethood but should accompany it or take place after the claim is made. It is an act of Allāh in support of His Prophets/Messengers. A Mu‘jizah is different from Karāmah (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 322; Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1575-7; Lisān 5/369f; Lane 5/1961f).

sinners, criminals – see the footnotes to 6:55, 7:40.

means believer, faithful. It is derived from the root a-m-n, which means to be safe. As an Islāmic term, Mu’min is a higher form of believer — someone who believes in Islām from the heart, while a “Muslim” (q.v.) is one who believes by the tongue (49:14). Al-Mu’min is also a name of Allāh meaning the Giver-of-Peace (see Appendix B) (Aṣfahānī 241, 239-41; Ibn Kathīr 3/356f; Qurṭubī 1/192f, 16/322, 22/320; Lisān 12/289-95; Lane 1/103, 4/1413, 1416).

hypocrite. It is derived from the root n-f-q, which means to become spent, exhausted or to die (used in the last sense for animals). As an Islāmic term, Munāfiq means one who pretends to be Muslim while in his heart he believes otherwise. The Prophet has said that a munāfiq has the following four traits: “If he is entrusted with something, he betrays; he lies when he speaks; he deceives when he enters in a compact; and when he promises, he breaks the promise.” The Prophet added that “if any of these four traits is found in a person he has a trait of nifāq” (Aṣfahānī 502; Ibn Kathīr 1/83; Qurṭubī 1/195, 8/212f; Lisān 10/358f ; Lane 8/3036). Munāfiqs are usually understood in the historical context of Madīnah, but people with similar characteristics in any place or age will be considered hypocrites.

Detestable, abominable, strange, disvowed, disapproved, hateful, evil. It is derived from the root n-k-r which means to be strange or unknown. Munkar is any act that righteous minds consider foul, ugly and disapproved. It is an antonym of ma‘rūf (q.v.). It is a primary duty of Muslims to encourage others to do good deeds and to forbid them to commit evil deeds (3:104; 3:110, 114; 9:71, 112; 22:41; 31:17). A Muslim is enjoined by the Prophet to stop munkar with his hand, and if he cannot, stop it with his tongue and if he cannot do even that, he should consider it hateful in his heart, and this last position is the weakest form of Imān (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 505; Ibn Kathīr 1/715-7, 748-50; Lisān 5/233f; Lane 8/2849-51).

means resigned or submissive. It is a verbal noun derived from the root s-l-m, which means to be safe and secure. As an Islāmic term, it means a person who has submitted himself to Allāh by verbally uttering the Shahādah (q.v.). It is the first stage of belief where a person testifies to his acceptance of Islām by his tongue (49:14). With his sincerity, he will rise to the stage of ’Īmān (q.v.) which is a higher state of belief when one testifies to the faith by his heart (Aṣfahānī 241, 239-41; Lisān 12/289-95; Lane 4/1413, 1416).

2:177 – see also 42:37.

liked, preferred. Mustaḥabb means an act done by the Prophet occasionally. Such acts are neither farḍ (q.v.) nor wājib (q.v.). A synonym of Mustaḥabb is Mandūb and its antonym is Makrūh (q.v.). Anyone who does Mustaḥabb acts will be recompensed by Allāh, but those who do not, will not be punished. Mustaḥabb acts include bathing on Fridays, committing to writing when entering financial agreements (2:282), attending congregational ‘Īd prayers, brushing teeth (Siwāk) before every prayer, undertaking more Ḥajs and ‘Umrahs after performing one’s first Ḥaj and ‘Umrah, performing early morning nafl prayer after sunrise (Ṣalātal-Ḍūḥā), offering prayer at the time of lunar and solar eclipse, fasting on the Day of ‘Arafah during Ḥaj and on the day of ‘Āshūrā’ (10th of Muḥarram), offering two rak‘ahs of taḥayyatul masjid upon entering a mosque, joining the prayer for rain (Istisqā’) during drought, helping others in their times of distress, offering soft or “good loans” (al-qarḍ al-ḥasan), giving time to a debtor in distress, behaving leniently while selling something, forgiving an attacker or killer, giving witness when asked, greeting people with a smile, giving good advice to the ruler and helping the poor etc. (Aṣfahānī 105f; Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1531; Jurjānī, Ta‘rīfāt 178; Lisān 2/189, 754; Lane 2/495).

enjoyment. As an Islāmic term, it refers to temporary marriage, which was allowed in early Islām during long military campaigns but was later prohibited. The Shī‘ah believe that it is still valid, but according to the Sunnīs, any marriage planned for a limited period or with the intention of divorce is invalid. Mut‘ah or Matā‘ is also the name of the gift a divorcing husband is enjoined to offer his wife as a parting gift and it should be according to his means (2:236) (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/184-95; Lisān 8/329; Lane 8/3017).

resembling something else, ambiguous. As an Islāmic term, it means those Qur’ānic āyahs whose interpretation is difficult, such as Allāh’s attributes, the Resurrection and Hereafter, or which are unintelligible like the opening āyahs of many sūrahs (e.g., Alif-Lām-Mīm, etc.) or whose meanings are not learnt from their words. Mustashābih has also been explained to denote those āyahs which have been abrogated (see Naskh) as against the Muḥkam (q.v.), which are the āyahs whose meanings are clear from their words (Aṣfahānī 254f; Qurṭubī 4/14; Lisān 13/503-5; Lane 4/1500f) – see also the footnotes to 3:7.

the seceders, withdrawers. It was a group that came out of the Khawārij (q.v.), claiming that it shunned both the misguided groups, the Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (Sunnīs), and the Khawārij. The Mu‘tazilah said that a perpetrator of sin is not a believer absolutely nor an unbeliever absolutely. It later evolved into a school of speculative theology (Kalām) that flourished in Basra and Baghdad during the 8th-10th centuries CE. Later, Mu‘tazilah were influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, which by then had been translated into Arabic. The Mu‘tazilah are best known for rejecting the doctrine that said that the Qur’ān was uncreated and was co-eternal with Allāh. This was the cause of much persecution during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma’mūn and his three successors, when religious scholars were punished and even killed for not conforming to the Mu‘tazilī doctrine which said that the Qur’ān is not eternal but created. Over the years, the group disappeared but its doctrines and thoughts saved in books, continue to inspire people for their philosophical and rational import (Lisān 11/440; Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1584; Lane 5/2037).

Prophet — a Messenger of Allāh who was not given a Scripture (Kitāb), such as Yūsha‘ (Joshua — see the footnote to 18:62) and Isḥāq (Isaac). Such Messengers follow the Shari‘ah of their predecessor (Kashshāf 639; Ibn Kathīr 2/509, Aṣfahānī 483, Lisān 15/302f.) — See also Rasūl; the footnote to 19:51.

a conditional vow in which a man vows to do a certain thing if a particular thing happens or does not happen to him. As an Islāmic term, Nadhr means a person’s making nīyyah (q.v.) to offer a sacrifice or to pay Ṣadaqh (q.v.) to the poor or to do some other good deed like building a school or digging a well etc. if, for example, he regains his health or achieves some goal, or wards off an impending trouble, etc. Nadhr is made only about lawful things and once made, must be redeemed. Failing to fulfil it will entail a sin (Aṣfahānī 487; Ibn Kathīr 3/616; Qurṭubī 19/125f; Lisān 5/200f; Lane 8/2782).

accession or addition to the original, a voluntary gift to the poor. As an Islāmic term, Nafl has two meanings: a) a deed beyond what is incumbent or obligatory (17:79) like a supererogatory, or extra, prayer offered after offering the farḍ (q.v.) and wājib (q.v.) prayers, b) booty or spoils of war (8:1). In the second sense, it is a synonym of fa’y (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 503; Qurṭubī 7/361f; Lisān 11/671; Lane 8/3036).

Soul, self. The Qur’ān has offered two descriptions of souls: (1) al-Nafs al-Ammārah (12:53), the soul inciting evil. It is a general characteristic of a soul that it incites Man to commit sins in pursuit of worldly pleasures and wishes; (2) al-Nafs al-Lawwāmah (75:2), the self-reproaching soul that admonishes Man after he commits a sin or when he fails to do good deeds. A believer’s soul is always self-reproaching for any wrong he committed or any good he failed to do, while a disbeliever’s soul is ever-content about whatever he does. Ṣūfīs add three more characteristics to souls: Ḥaywānīyyah (animalistic), Mulhimah (inspiring) and Muṭma’innah (calm and content) (Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1718f; Qurṭubī 9/210, 19/91; Ṭabarī 29/109f; Kashshāf 520, 1160; Ibn Kathīr 3/608; Aṣfahānī 457; Lisān 6/233-5).

uncleanliness, impurity, filth. As an Islāmic term, Najāsah may be minor or major. Defecation and urination are minor najāsah after which cleaning of the affected part is obligatory in addition to making fresh wuḍū’ before offering Ṣalāt. Sexual contact and discharge of semen are causes of major Najāsah after which ghusl (q.v.) is obligatory. In case of non-availability or sheer scarcity of water, both major and minor najāsah will be removed by Tayammum (q.v.) after which prayer may be offered. Polytheists are considered najis, therefore, they are not allowed to come close to the House of Allāh in Makkah (9:28). An unclean person is called najis which is the verbal noun derived from the same root n-j-s as that of Najāsah (Aṣfahānī 483; Kashshāf 429; Lisān 4/226; Lane 8/2770f).

Persian and Urdu for Ṣalāt (q.v.).

to annul, change, supersede, obliterate, efface, cancel or substitute something by another. As an Islāmic term, it means Allāh’s superseding a certain āyah by another (2:106) or the Prophet’s revising an earlier command with a new one like his prohibition of women visiting graveyards which he later allowed, or his allowing Mut‘ah (temporary marriage) and later outlawing it (Shī‘ah scholars believe it is still valid) or substitution of the fasting of ‘Āshūrā’ by the fasting during the month of Ramaḍān. Other examples are that in the early days of Islām, liquor and gambling were disparaged yet allowed (2:219) but later these two were totally outlawed (5:90(; Jerusalem was the first qiblah (q.v.) for the Muslim prayer but later it was substituted with the Ka’bah (2:144). The annulled command is called mansūkh (abrogated) while the superseding command or āyah is called nāsikh (abrogator) (Aṣfahānī 490; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/70-2; Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1691-4; Lisān 3/60f; Lane 8/2788). No naskh is allowed by Qiyās (q.v.) or Ijmā‘ (q.v.) (Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/1694). Some later scholars opined that there is no naskh in the Qur’ān, that naskh only means that the Qur’ān, being the last divine Revelation, has abrogated some earlier commands like abolishing Sabbath and changing the prayer direction (Jaṣṣāṣ 1/71) – see also the footnotes to 2:106, 16:101.

Nafl

an extremist “Sunnī” group that came out of the Khawārij (q.v.). The name is derived from the root n-ṣ-b, which means to oppose and be the enemy of someone. This sect violently opposed the Fourth Caliph ‘Alī ibn abī Ṭālib and his progeny. This term is used by the Shī‘ah (q.v.) as a derogatory term for all Muslims who oppose them. As a group, Nawāṣib faded away long ago though their thoughts are found in some books (Lisān 1/762; Lane 8/2800).

Childbirth, postpartum state, postpartum bleeding. It is a state of impurity during which a woman is not required to offer prayers and must not have sexual contact with her husband until after she performs ghusl (q.v.). Such a woman is called Nafsā’ or Nufasā’ (Aṣfahānī 501; Lisān 6/238f; Lane 8/2829).

Intent, aim. It is the verbal noun of the root n-w-y which means to intend, aim. As an Islāmic term, Nīyyah means the intention made verbally or in one’s heart to do a certain act of worship, such as prayer, fasting and to offer a sacrifice. In a ḥadīth, the Prophet said that all deeds are rewarded according to one’s intention, i.e., a deed made with a good intention will earn good recompense even if the outcome turns out bad and if the intention is bad, even a deed that gives by chance a good outcome will be treated by Allāh as a misdeed (Aṣfahānī 510; Lisān 15/347f; Lane 8/3040).

Friendship is allowed with those non-Muslims who do not persecute Muslims (8:72, 60:8). Reciprocity to be followed in relations with non-Muslims (9:7) – see the footnote to 60:8.

Yatīm

Jannah

see the footnote to 85:4.

see the footnotes to 2:51, 26:19 on Prophet Mūsā; 10:92 on the Pharaoh’s mummy; 28:8 on Hāmān and 28:76 on Qārūn – see also Mūsa, Prophet.

See Ḥaj, ‘Umrah

1. Profession of Faith (Shahādah) that “There is no god but Allāh, and Muḥammad is the Messenger of Allāh;” 2. Prayer (Ṣalat): Muslims must pray facing Makkah at five appointed times every day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and after dusk; 3. Charity (Zakāt): Payment of the poor-due on annual savings and agricultural and horticultural produce (see the footnote to 2:43); 4. Fasting (Ṣawm) during the month of Ramaḍān from dawn to dusk; 5. Pilgrimage (Ḥaj) to Makkah at an appointed time once in a life-time. This is obligatory for every Muslim whose health and finances permit it (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Kitāb al-Īmān, ḥadīth 8; Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Kitāb al-Imān, ḥadīth 8). – See Islām, Īmān.

see Ṣalāt

see ‘Adhāb.

to throw a stone or a pebble or an arrow; asperse, revile. As an Islāmic term, Qaḍf means to accuse a chaste or honest or married woman with adultery. Such an accuser is required to produce four witnesses to support his claim and if he fails to do so, he will be punished by the ruler or the Qāḍī with 80 lashes (24:4). A husband who accuses his wife of adultery must also produce four witnesses to support his claim. If he fails, he and his wife have to undergo mutual cursing (see Li‘ān) and if anyone of the two refuses to take part in Li‘ān, he/she will be punished: the husband for Qaḍf and the woman for Zinā (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 397; Jaṣṣāṣ 2/183; Lisān 8/276f; Lane 8/2986).

Judge, especially a judge in a Muslim state.

Destiny, fate, predestination. It is a part of Islāmic belief that the destiny of every person has been decided before his birth in this world. But it does not mean that Allāh forces anyone to commit sins. He has given every person free will to do good or bad acts in his life. He has instilled the knowledge of good and bad in everyone. Moreover, He sent His Messengers to remind people what is good and what is bad and what is wrong and what is right. Qadr only means that since Allāh, unlike humans, is beyond the constraints of Time-Space, He knows what a certain human will do in the future (Aṣfahānī 395; Ibn Kathīr 2/78, 3/696; Kashshāf 474; Lisān 5/74f; Lane 7/2495) – see the footnote to 10:96.

direction of prayer – see the footnote to 2:142.

Maysir

retaliation, retribution. As an Islāmic term, it refers to the Law of Equality (or Retribution), i.e., to retaliate for a slain or wounded man by slaying the killer or wounding one to the extent he wounded his victim (2:178, 194, 5:45). Qiṣāṣ has to be administered by the ruler or the Qāḍī. A second option for the heir or the next of kin of a victim is to accept blood money (see Diyah). A third option for the heir or the next of kin of the victim is to pardon the killer. This system is now applied in only a few Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia (Aṣfahānī 404; Ibn Kathīr 1/213; Lisān 7/74-6; Lane 7/2526-8) – see also the footnote to 2:178.

analogy, comparison. It is derived from the root q-y-s, which means to measure. As an Islāmic term, Qiyās means the use of ijtihād (q.v.) by well-versed scholars of Islāmic sciences to arrive at an opinion on a new issue about which there is no clear guidance in the Qur’ān or the Sunnah/Ḥadīth of the Prophet. No qiyās is allowed if a clear rule already exists in the Qur’ān and Sunnah/Ḥadīth. Qiyās is arrived at by using analogy to see what Islām says about a similar issue. An example is the prohibition of nabīḍ (an intoxicating beverage made of barley, wheat etc) since it is similar to khamr (q.v.) which is liquor made of dates and grapes. Qiyās to find a correct rule about a new issue or problem is obligatory (4:83), but only well-versed scholars (‘ulamā’) are allowed to do so. Laymen have to follow the opinions of the ‘ulama about such matters (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/270; Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/304-12; Lisān 6/187; Lane 7/2577f).

see the footnotes to 12:2, 13:37, 16:103, 41:44; Introduction.

Allāh's guarantee to keep it safe: 15:9.

Opinion, idea, conception, notion. As an Islāmic term, Rā’y means someone’s use of analogy to form a rule or opinion. The Muḥaddiths called the fuqahā’ who used qiyās (q.v.) as “Aṣḥāb al- Rā’y” (People of opinion or analogy) for the latter’s use of analogy to form legal opinions when there was no clear instruction in the Qur’ān and Sunnah/Ḥadīth (Aṣfahānī 209; Lisān 14/291, 300; Lane 3/1000f).

breastfeeding. It is derived from the root r-ḍ-a‘. As an Islāmic term, Raḍā‘ah has two connotations: a) a mother has the first right to nurse her infant. The father has a right to employ a woman from outside to nurse the baby only if the biological mother refuses to do so, or if she suffers from some illness or reason which prevents her from nursing. The duration of suckling is two years according to the Qur’ān (2:233). If the mother gets divorced during her pregnancy or after delivery, she will be paid for her nursing services according to the normal rate in the area. A divorced mother has a right to keep the baby with her; in the case of son, until he is able to eat and drink without any help and for a daughter, when she reaches the stage of menstruation. After this, the child will be given a choice to opt for anyone of his/her parents. No mother or father will be denied access to the child (see the footnote to 2:233); b) a child nursed by some other woman becomes like her son/daughter in the matter of prohibition of marriage with close relatives. Such a child cannot marry that foster woman or her children or her closest relatives the like of whom are forbidden among blood relatives (4:23 – see Maḥram/Nikāḥ) (Aṣfahānī 197; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/488-501, 2/156-9; Qurṭubī 3/160-3; Ibn Kathīr 1/232f; Kashshāf 229-31; Lane 3/1097f).

the shunners, deserters, rejecters. It is derived from the root r-f-ḍ which means to reject. It is a derogatory term for a group who deserted the Shī‘ī Imām Zayd ibn ‘Alī (695-740 CE) who refused their demand to denounce the first two Caliphs, Abū Bakr and ‘Umar, saying, “They were supporters of my grandfather. I will not disavow them.” Upon this, a section of his followers deserted his group. The Zaydīs called this group “Rāfiḍah.” Later, this derogatory term started being used by some Sunnis for all Shī‘ah (q.v.), especially for the Twelvers or Al-Ithnā ‘Asharīyyah (Lisān 7/157; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/857; Lane 3/1121).

pledge, collateral; a thing deposited with a person in lieu of something that has been taken or received from him; a security for a debt. Muslims are enjoined to write down a transaction involving credit and if no writer is available, a deposit (collateral) should be delivered to the creditor (Aṣfahānī 204; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/874; Kashshāf 157; Qurṭubī 3/407; Lisān 13/188f; Lisān 13/188f; Lane 3/1172).

Stoning. In Islāmic Sharī‘ah, Rajm means the stoning to death of a married adulterer/adulteress (but this is not mentioned in the Qur’an) – see Zinā.

One would want to save himself on the Day of Judgement by ransoming whole world: 70:10

Bribe. It is money given to a ruler or a Qāḍī or some influential person to judge in the favour of the bribe-giver, or to incite him to do what the bribe-giver desires or as a means of attaining something undeservedly. Payment and acceptance of such considerations is unlawful (2:188, 4:29) – see also suḥt (Kashshāf 116; Ibn Kathīr 1/231f; Lisān 14/322; Lane 3/1091).

a Messenger of Allāh who is given both a Scripture (Kitāb) and Miracles. Every Rasūl is also a Nabīy (q.v.), but every Nabīy is not a Rasūl (Ibn Kathīr 2/509; Qurṭubī 7/298, 12/80; Kashshāf 699; Asfahani 195; Lisān 11/283f.) — See also Nabī; Appendix C for a list of all Prophets and Messengers of Allāh mentioned in the Qur’ān — see the footnote to 19:51.

rather “the Ribā” (al-Ribā), is an Islāmic term about which there is much confusion. In recent times, “interest” or “profit” offered by modern financial institutions has been equated with the Riba. But, by using “Al” (the Arabic definite article), the Qur’ān has specified a certain commercial transaction that was in vogue in Arabia at the time of the advent of Islām. “The Riba” is explained in the Qur’ān as a “doubled and multiplied” charge on a loan (3:130). It has further been explained that the Riba is an attempt “to devour people’s wealth by false pretence” (4:161) which includes payment or acceptance of bribe (2:188, 4:29). The āyah prohibiting the Ribā was among the last āyahs revealed to the Prophet and he, according to Caliph ‘Umar, died before explaining it (Ibn Kathīr 1/335f). Arabs did not practise “Riba” transactions in which a rate of interest was fixed at the outset. Instead, money or goods were lent or sold on the understanding that the debtor would repay within an agreed period of time. It was alright and no addition was paid or demanded if the debtor paid back the due sum at the end of the agreed term. But if he failed to do, the creditor would allow a relaxation for a further agreed period on the condition that the due amount was raised, usually doubled (Ṭabarī 4/59; Jaṣṣāṣ 2/47). Another form of raising the original loan in kind was where the debtor had to pay a year-old camel but to get relaxation for a further period, he had to agree to pay a two-year-old camel and so on. This is the doubled and multiplied Riba (Ṭabarī 3/67, 4/59; Qurṭubī 4/202). Arabs knew only this kind of Riba and this is the Riba that was abolished by the Prophet (Qurṭubī 3/356). A loan transaction became “the Riba” when the creditor/owner of the capital unilaterally raised the amount of the loan after the debtor failed to pay back in time (Ṭabarī 3/69; 6/17). There is no issue if the increase was agreed on at the outset (Ṭabarī 3/69). “The Riba” was practised by some people of the Quraysh and Thaqīf tribes (Ibn Kathīr 1/336). One of the main practitioners was the Prophet’s uncle Al-‘Abbās whose earnings of the Riba were specifically abolished by the Prophet in his last sermon at the time of the Conquest of Makkah (Ibn Hishām 1/603; Ṭabarī 3/72) but the original principal was spared and the debtor had to return it to the lender (2:279). The other form of the prohibited “Riba” was to lend certain specified goods in kind on the condition that the debtor would have to pay more back e.g., one and a half or two raṭls (see the footnote to 58:1) for a loan of one raṭl. The following six goods have been specified in the ḥadīth for this kind of prohibited transaction: (1) gold for gold, (2) silver for silver, (3) barley for barley, (4) wheat for wheat, (5) dates for dates and (6) salt for salt. Riba has been prohibited in only these six items (Sayyid Sābiq, Fiqh al-Sunnah, 931). Any increase in the returnable loan of these six goods is Riba while an increase in other items is not Riba (ibid., 932). But if one kind of goods is exchanged by another kind of goods like wheat for barley or silver for gold, there is no issue and no question of Riba arises (Qurṭubī 3/347-350). In such non-Riba transactions, the quantity of the goods to be returned has to be fixed at the outset and it cannot be increased later if the debtor fails to return the loan in kind. Moreover, debtors in distress must be given grace time (2:280). Another form of Riba, which too is prohibited, is for a creditor to tell the debtor to pay back his loan before time and deduct a sum from the loan (Jaṣṣāṣ 1/566). It is also prohibited that someone should pay a fine for returning a merchandise (Ibn Kathīr 1/490). Bribery is prohibited because it is devouring people’s wealth by unfair means, bāṭil (2:188, 4:29,161, 9:34). For the same reason, gambling, too, is prohibited (2:219). Trading of something known with something unknown is also prohibited for the same reason, like trading in unharvested seed products or unplucked fruits or agricultural produce which is still in its ears because their actual yield is not known at the time of the transaction (Ibn Kathīr 1/335). Such transactions are now called “futures trading” when a produce is sold and bought before the actual weight of the produce is known or even before a produce is ready. This is a form of gambling that is prohibited in Islām to prevent the exploitation of people in need. On the other hand, any trade mutually agreed between two parties is lawful (2:275, 4:29). The Qur’ān further says, “Allāh has permitted trade and forbidden usury” (2:275). Trade (tijārah) by mutual agreement is allowed without any restriction (4:29) and there is “no blame if one can earn one thousand dirhams using one dirham” (Ṭabarī 5/20).

Apostasy. It is derived from the root r-d-d, which means to return, go back, retract. As an Islāmic term, Riddah is when a Muslim converts to another religion or to disbelief. This problem first arose after the death of the Prophet when some Arabs became apostates. They belonged to two groups: some believed in the false “prophets” Musaylimah and Al-Aswad Al-‘Ansī, while others rejected Islām and returned to Jāhilīyyah (q.v.). A second group did not renounce Islām but refused to pay Zakāt, claiming that it applied only to the Prophet. ‘Umar had doubts about the legality of fighting this second group because it believed in Tawḥīd (q.v.) and offered prayers. But Caliph Abū Bakr insisted that anyone rejecting any part of Islām was a murtadd (apostate) and must be fought. Therefore, war was waged against this group also. The Islāmic rule is that a murtadd will be given three days’ time to rethink and repent. If he repents, he will be set free, otherwise he is to be killed. The punishment of riddah is no longer carried out by any Muslim state (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/128, 2/358f; Qurṭubī 3/46-9; Lisān 3/173, 5/146; Lane 3/1063f).

see Isnād in this appendix.

see the footnote for 2:59.

acting ostentatiously, hypocrisy. As an Islāmic term, Riyā’ means for a man to do something so that people might see it and think well of him. It is an act that is not done for the sake of Allāh, hence such a man will receive no recompense for his deed on the Day of Judgement. Such a man is called murā’ī, hypocrite – see also Nifāq (Ibn Kathīr 1/507, 3/737; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/900-6; Qurṭubī 2/213; Lane 3/999-1002).

Persian and Urdu for Ṣawm (q.v.)

see the footnotes to 2:87, 17:85.

allowance, permission. A Muslim is allowed to say or do something contrary to his belief in order to save himself from serious harm at the hands of an enemy or in an emergency. Rukhṣah allows him to do something that is normally impermissible, like eating the flesh of a dead animal if no food is available or not fasting during travel but perseverance, or ‘Azīmah (q.v.) is better for a Muslim (Jurjānī, Ta‘rīfāt 95; Lisān 7/40; Qurṭubī 4/252f).

bow, bend. It is derived from the root r-k-‘a which means to bend forward. As an Islāmic term, it is the part of the prayer where, while standing, one lowers one’s head and bows to Allāh once before going to Sajdah (q.v.). Also derived from the same root is rak‘ah which means a single act of standing in prayer that which includes Rukū‘ and Sajdah. Prayers consist of two, three or four rak‘ahs. This word is also used in the Qur’ān for prayer in general (2:43, 77:48, 9:112) (Qurṭubī 19/166f; Aṣfahānī 202; Lane 3/1147).

The earliest Muslim authorities like the companions of the Prophet and the generation that followed them (Tābi‘ī/plural: Tābi‘ūn). It means that the tenets, beliefs and preferences of the earliest generations of Islām are preferred and followed by followers of the Salaf (singular: Salafī) in as much as these do not clash with the Qur’ān and Sunnah of the Prophet. They first appeared as followers of the Ḥanbalī maslak (fiqhī school) in the fourth century AH. As a particular group among Muslims now, people who follow the opinions of Imām Ibn Taymīyah (d. 1328 CE), his disciple Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 1350 CE) and Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792 CE) of Najd call themselves “Salafīs.” Followers of the Indian sect Ahl-i-Ḥadīth also call themselves “Salafīs” though they do not follow any maslak.

a small contingent of armed men who travel for reconnaissance or attack at night to take the enemy by surprise. As an Islāmic term, it means an expedition sent out from Madīnah during the Prophet’s time in which he did not participate as against a Ghazwah (q.v.) was an expedition in which he did participate. Sarīyyah is an expedition in which five to 300 or more fighters participated. A smaller contingent of up to four men was called Ṭalī‘ah (vanguard) (Lisān 14/382; Lane 4/1356).

See Iblīs

‘Awrah (q.v.)

(singular: Sha‘īrah) means a sign or a mark. As an Islāmic term, it means the practices or rites of Ḥaj (q.v.) such as circuiting around the Ka‘bah, walking to and from the nearby hillocks of Ṣafā and Marwah, halting at Minā and ‘Arafāt, throwing pebbles at the pillars marking the Shayṭān at Minā and offering a sacrifice at the end of the Ḥaj. The places where these rites are performed are called Mashā‘īr, which are all located in and around Makkah (Lisān 4/413-5, 11/122; Kashshāf 105, 277, 694; Ibn Kathīr 1/621; Qurṭubī 6/37; Lane 4/1561).

intercession, a person’s pleading the case of another person to a ruler or some influential person to show mercy or leniency to him. None can intercede with Allāh on the Day of Judgement except someone allowed by Him (2:255). According to a ḥadīth, the Prophet will be the intercessor of his Ummah on the Day of Judgement (Aṣfahānī 263; Qurṭubī 1/377-80; Ibn Kathīr 1/672-4, 2/447-9; Kashshāf 1235; Lisān 8/183f; Lane 4/1571).

is derived from the root sh-h-d, which means to witness, to give testimony about what one has seen himself or knows. Its derivative on the measure of istif‘āl, means martyrdom and a martyr is called shahīd (q.v.). As an Islāmic term, Shahādah means to declare that “there is no god but Allāh and Muḥammad is His Messenger” (i.e., to say Lā ilāhā illa’l-Lāh, Muḥammad Rasūl Allāh). (Aṣfahānī 267-9; Ibn Kathīr 1/192f; Kashshāf 100f; Lisān 3/239ff, 18/56; Lane 4/1609-11).

Martyr; see the footnote to 3:140.

(also called Shir‘ah, Shir‘, Shar‘) means a watering place, an oasis where men come to drink and draw water. As an Islāmic term, Sharī‘ah means the unalterable divine laws of belief in Allāh and conduct as believers like Ṣawm, Ṣalāt, Zakāt (q.v.), pilgrimage, marriage and other acts of obedience to Allāh and the duties to Him and to fellow human beings. The basic divine law (Dīn – q.v.) is the same in all divine religions but Sharī‘ah differs from one Prophet to another. The current valid Sharī‘ah until the Day of Resurrection is the one brought by the Last Prophet, Muḥammad (Aṣfahānī 258; Lisān 8/176; Lane 4/1535).

see Iblīs.

(singular: Shī‘ī) means partisans, followers and supporters of a person or a group or a sect. As an Islāmic term, it means the partisans or supporters of the fourth Caliph, ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib. They believe that he was the rightful Imām (q.v.) of the Muslim community after the death of the Prophet and that the office of the Imām should remain after ‘Alī in his descendants from his wife Fāṭimah, the daughter of the Prophet. Shī‘ah are also called Imāmīyah. With the passage of time and due to persecution by the Umayyad rulers, Shī‘ah evolved into a separate Muslim sect with their own Fiqh (q.v.) which is known as al-Fiqh al-Ja‘farī (the Ja‘farī Fiqh) attributed to Imām Ja‘far al-Ṣādiq, their sixth Imām. Major Shī‘ah groups are the Twelver Shī‘ah, believing in 12 Imāms, the Zaydīs believing in the first five and the Ismā‘īlīs believing in the first seven Imāms (Aṣfahānī 271; Lisān 8/188f; Lane 4/1632f).

to associate, make someone partner in a business or property. Such a partner is called sharīk. As an Islāmic term, Shirk means to associate someone (human or idols etc.) with Allāh in godhood. It is considered “the Great Shirk” that will not be pardoned by Allāh. To do good deeds with a view to earn praise and laurels of others is considered a lesser Shirk, because such worship is not for Allāh (Aṣfahānī 259f; Ibn Kathīr 1/503, 521f; Qurṭubī 5/181; Lisān 10/148-50; Lane 4/1541f).

Consultation. The Prophet was enjoined by Allāh to consult people (3:159, 42:38). It is a basic principle of Islāmic polity that the ruler has to consult learned people from all walks of life. About religious matters, he has to consult fuqahā’ and religious scholars; about problems and issues of the masses, he has to consult important and experienced people of society; about military issues, he has to consult generals of the army and experts in the military field and so on. Any ruler who does not consult the relevant experts before taking decisions is liable to be deposed (Aṣfahānī 270; Qurṭubī 4/250-3; Lane 4/1617). – See also Ahl al-Ḥall wa’l-‘Aqd.

The Lote-tree on the seventh heaven beyond which neither an angel nor a prophet can pass. It is the Final Boundary for humans and angels (53:14). Beyond it is the Throne (q.v.) of Allāh. (Aṣfahānī 227f; Lisān 4/355; Ibn Kathīr 2/4, 3/397; Qurṭubī 17/94-8; Lane 4/1331).

fornication and debauchery. In the Qur’ānic description (4:24f, 5:5), it is used to describe a man and woman having illicit sexual relations or living together without marriage. It is another name for zinā (q.v.) but may also include living together without marriage. Such a man is called musāfiḥ and the woman is called musāfiḥah. A companion of this kind, male or female, is called “khidn” (4:25, 5:5). The offspring of such a relationship is called safīḥ (Aṣfahānī 144; Lisān 2/485f; Lane 4/1369).

37.

The Arabian economy at the time of the Prophet depended on slaves. Slavery was an accepted institution all over the world at the time. Unlike the prohibition of liquor and the Ribā, a total prohibition of slavery could have led to a general rebellion. Therefore, Islām did not outlaw slavery in one go. Instead, it institutionalised many ways to grant freedom to slaves and limit slavery, like freeing of slaves in expiation (kaffārah) of many sins like the murder of a Muslim (4:92), expiation of an oath (5:89) and Ẓihār (58:3; Jaṣṣāṣ 3/568). Allāh commanded Muslims in the imperative to allow slaves to buy their freedom (mukātabah – see the footnote to 24:33) by paying a certain amount of money to their masters. Under this arrangement, the slave had to be set free for an agreed period in order to allow him to earn and pay his master. This command was considered so serious and binding that Caliph ‘Umar flogged a person who was refusing to allow his slave’s request for mukātabah. The Caliph forced the master to accept his slave’s request (Jaṣṣāṣ 3/415). Moreover, Allāh enjoined masters to financially help their slaves seeking mukātabah (24:33). The fourth Caliph ‘Alī used to order masters to forgo one-fourth of the sum agreed with their slaves for mukātabah (Jaṣṣāṣ 3/417). The Qur’ān pronounced freeing of slaves as a great act of piety (90:11). The Prophet said freeing a slave ensures for his master a place in Paradise (Jaṣṣāṣ 3/637). He forbade his companions to call their slaves “My slave and my slave girl.” Instead, he ordered them to say, “My young man and my young woman.” A slave-girl who gave birth to her master’s child became an Umm Walad (“Mother of Child”) who could not be sold and became free automatically at the death of her master. Islām outlawed the tradition of kidnapping people from other areas and enslaving them. The only avenue left was enemy fighters made captives during a war between Muslims and their enemies. Even here, there are many instances of freeing PoWs after the war (like after the wars of Badr and Ḥunayn) or freeing them after payment of ransom or in lieu of the captives’ teaching Muslims some art like writing (as happened after the Battle of Badr). A case of maltreatment of a Coptic man by the son of the governor of Egypt came in front of the Second Caliph, ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, upon which he told the governor (‘Amr ibn al-‘Āṣ): “Since when did you enslave people who were given birth as free men by their mothers?” Slavery was banned in all Muslim states by the mid-1950s. In fact, the first ruler to ban slavery in the world was Aḥmad, the 10th Bey [ruler] of Tunisia, who first banned the slave trade in 1841 and abolished slavery altogether by a general proclamation in 1846, long before the USA did so in 1865. Though exploitation of labour in slavery-like conditions and sexual bondage continue across the world, as an institution, slavery was declared illegal in 1948 by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. All Muslim countries are bound by this Declaration. See also the footnotes to 4:3 and 24:33.

Anything forbidden, prohibited, unlawful. As a Qur’ānic term, it means any money taken unlawfully, especially a bribe given to a ruler or a Qāḍī or any influential person to secure a favourable judgement or unjustified benefit (5:42,62). A bribe given to protect one’s religion will not be considered suḥt, in which case only the receiver will be a sinner. According to Imām Abū Ḥanīfah, a ruler or a Qāḍī or the like accepting suḥt will automatically lose his position and any judgement passed by him after accepting suḥt will be invalid. The proceeds of selling a dog, khamr (q.v.) or pig are considered suḥt (Aṣfahānī 225; Ibn Kathīr 1/681, 2/532; Kashshāf 291, 659; Qurṭubī 11/215, 6/182-4; Lisān 2/41; Lane 4/1314f).

be lowly, humble and submissive; prostrate. As an Islāmic term, Sujūd means to bend and put one’s forehead on the ground as part of Ṣalāt (q.v.). During the last part of each rak‘ah (q.v.), one drops gently upon one’s knees, places the palms of the hands on the ground, and then puts his nose and forehead on the ground between both his hands. This part of the Ṣalāt is called Sajdah. Each rak‘ah consists of two sajdahs. Before the advent of Islām, sujūd was allowed to kings and chiefs. Islām forbade it and made it permissible only for Allāh. The Qur’ān says that all entities in the Universe prostrate before Allāh (16:49, 22:18). Sujūd (verbal noun: Sājid, plural Sujjad/Sājidūn is a symbol of the submission of the faithful and believers to Allāh. This word is also used in the Qur’ān for prayer in general (13:15, 16:49, 22:18) (Aṣfahānī 202, 223; Ibn Kathīr 2/306; Kashshāf 531, 574; Lane 4/1307).

means way, course, practice or manner of acting. As an Islāmic term, Sunnah means what the Prophet said or commanded or did or forbade by word or by deed about things that are not mentioned or explained in the Qur’ān. Therefore, it is said “Al-Kitāb wa’-l Sunnah,” i.e., The Book (Qur’ān) and the Way of the Prophet. People who follow Sunnah are called “Ahl al-Sunnah” (People of the Sunnah) which is plural, and “Sunnī” is its singular form. This term is used for Muslims who are not Shī‘ah (q.v.) (Lisān 13/223-6; Lane 4/1438).

see Sunnah

rank, status, stage, nobility, height. As an Islāmic term, it means a complete chapter of the Qur’ān as each Sūrah forms a degree or step distinct from the other. Each Sūrah of the Qur’ān has a name and every copy of the Qur’ān clearly indicates the beginning and the end of a Sūrah. In total, there are 114 Sūrahs in the Qur’ān (Aṣfahānī 247f; Ṭabarī 1/35; Ibn Kathīr 1/47f; Lisān 4/386f; Lane 4/1465).

Interpretation. It is derived from the root ’a-w-l, which means to return. As an Islāmic term, Ta’wīl means to interpret the secret and obscure meaning of a Qur’ānic āyah as opposed to Tafsīr (q.v.) which attempts to interpret the literal and obvious meaning of an āyah. To some extent, Ta’wīl is synonymous with Tafsīr but the former endeavours to to find the inner and ultimate import of a verse, which should still be consistent with the entirety of the Qur’ān and Sunnah. Ta’wīl also signifies interpretation of dreams (for more details, see Introduction) (Aṣfahānī 31; Qurṭubī 4/15f; Ibn Kathīr 1/353-5; Lisān 11/33f; Lane 1/126f).

a person belonging to the generation following the Ṣaḥābah, one who saw and met a Ṣaḥābī (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 72; Qurṭubī 8/238-40; Lisān 8/27f; Lane 1/295f).

interpretation, exposition. It is derived from the root f-s-r, which means to explain. Its derivative on the measure of Taf‘īl means to explain, disclose something concealed or obscure, render something apparent and clear. As an Islāmic term, it means exegesis, interpretation of the Qur’ān. There are many schools of Tafsīr and thousands of tafsīr works in many languages, especially Arabic, in the last fourteen centuries. To an extent, Tafsīr is synonymous with Ta’wīl (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 380; Kashshāf 745; Qurṭubī 13/29; Lisān 5/55; Lane 6/2397) – for more, see Introduction.

to remain awake late at night. As an Islāmic term, Tahajjud means to offer Nafl (q.v.) prayers late at night (17:79). Such prayers are highly recommended and rewarding but they are not obligatory. For offering tahajjud, one goes to bed then rises again before fajr prayers to offer prayers that may be long or short as convenient (Aṣfahānī 536; Ibn Kathīr 2/447; Qurṭubī 10/307f; Kashshāf 606; Lisān 3/431f; Lane 8/2879).

Alteration, distortion. It has been used in the Qur’ān to indicate attempts of kuffār to alter Qur’ānic āyahs and substitute some of its words with other words in order to change their meanings (2:75). Taḥrīf is also used to describe the habit of the recipients of previous divine Scriptures to alter words and meanings of their Scriptures for a little worldly gain (4:46, 5:13, 41) (Aṣfahānī 114; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/390; Kashshāf 83, 239; Ibn Kathīr 1/129, 385, 519; Lane 2/549).

rejecting something while knowing it to be true, denialism — see the footnote to 2:39.

Dissimulation, protection, precaution, saving one’s self, avoiding harm. As an Islāmic term, it means to say or show something in front of an enemy or in an unfriendly environment in order to save one’s life or avoid serious harm, such as saying to an enemy that one is not a Muslim or that he does not believe in Islām or the Prophet while in his heart he remains a steadfast believer in Islām (3:28, 16:106). This behaviour is called Rukhṣah (q.v) (permission, indulgence, facilitation) though the preferred option for a Muslim is to stay steadfast and refrain from lying about his faith. Steadfastness and refusal to compromise on one’s faith is called ‘Azīmah (determination, firmness). A true Muslim is expected to choose Azīmah. Avoiding taqīyyah is a better option for a Muslim (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/12f; Qurṭubī 1/180-2, 4/46, 57; Kashshāf 585, 885; Ibn Kathīr 1/365, 2/401; Lisān 15/404; Aṣfahānī 530f).

means to put a necklace (qalādah) around someone’s neck, or to invest governors or the like with the office of administration. As an Islāmic term, it means to follow some scholar or jurist or a school of Fiqh (q.v.) firmly believing him/it to be right without regard or consideration of proof. A person who does this is called muqallid (follower) (Lisān 3/266f; Lane 7/2557).

avoidance, guarding against something. As an Islāmic term, Taqwā means to fear Allāh and avoid not only explicit sins but also doubtful issues about which one is not clear if they are lawful or unlawful. It also means to be careful about what one says, does, eats or drinks to avoid any sin (Aṣfahānī 531; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/501; Ibn Kathīr 1/77; Qurṭubī 1/161f; Lisān 15/401-4; Lane 8/3059).

Nafl (q.v.) prayers offered after the ‘Ishā’ prayer during the month of Ramaḍān. Until Caliph ‘Umar’s time, people used to offer Tarāwīḥ individually or in small groups. Seeing this, he ordered them to pray behind one imām. Ever since, Tarāwīḥ is offered as a congregational prayer. According to various scholars of Fiqh, Tarāwīḥ consists of eight, twelve or twenty rak‘ahs (q.v.) (Saḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Kitāb al-Tarāwīḥ, ḥadīths 2008-2012; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/409).

. It means reliance on Allāh. One should make his best efforts and leave the rest to Allāh and be content with whatever the outcome is. Some ṣūfis have taken the extreme view that one should not exert oneself to achieve something as whatever Allāh has sanctioned will come to pass. But this is not how Tawakkul is commonly accepted and understood. In its essence, Tawakkul means to do one’s best and then wholeheartedly accept whatever comes from Allāh (Thānawī, Kashshāf 2/533; Aṣfahānī 531; Lisān 11/734; Qurṭubī 4/252, 7/266; Ibn Kathīr 1/441, 3/537, 696).

Repentance. It is the verbal noun of the root t-w-b, which means to return. As an Islāmic term, it means to repent one’s sins and return to Allāh with remorse and a firm resolve not to commit sins again. Such a servant of Allāh is called tā’ib (repenter). Allāh eagerly forgives the sins of His servants who repent. One of Allāh’s names or attributes is “Al-Tawwāb,” which is a superlative derived from the same root, meaning the most-forgiving, one who forgives again and again if His servant repents in sincerity (Aṣfahānī 76; Ibn Kathīr 1/106; Lisān 1/233; Lane 1/321).

to declare and consider something as one. As an Islāmic term, it means to declare and believe that Allāh is one and has no partner in divinity. Allāh’s names include Al-Aḥad (112:1) and Al-Wāḥid (2:163, 5:73 etc.), meaning “The One,” and these are used only for Allāh. Tawḥīd is an antonym of Shirk (q.v.) which means to associate partners with Allāh. Shirk is a major sin and the only one which Allāh will not pardon (4:48, 116, 5:72, 31:13) (Aṣfahānī 12, Lisān 3/450f; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/528f).

to perform ablution using dust or clay for Waḍū’ (q.v.) instead of water. It is derived from the root a-m-m, which means to intend, to head for something or some place. As an Islāmic term, it means that in case of non-availability or sheer scarcity of water one can, in place of performing Waḍū’ by water, use pure and clean dust or clay to wipe the face, hands and arms before prayer (4:43). Tayammum is allowed to a traveller who does not find water, to a person suffering from minor or major janābah (q.v.) who does not find water, and to a sick person who believes that use of water will aggravate his condition. It is also allowed in case of serious scarcity of water (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/461-85; Kashshāf 151; Ibn Kathīr 1/515; Lisān 12/22f; Lane 1/88).

A basic aim of Islām is to establish peace in society where the lives, honour and properties of all its members are safe and inviolable except by law. It does not allow the violation of the lives, rights and properties of Muslims, “Protected Peoples” (Ahl-al-Dhimmah) living in a Muslim state and others legally entering it. An āyah (8:60) using “irhāb,” the word used in modern Arabic for terrorism, has been quoted by Islāmophobes to claim that Islām allows and encourages terrorism. This is an utterly wrong and tendentious interpretation of the word which in its classical usage and textual context only means to keep a deterrent force ready to ward off enemies planning to attack a Muslim society or state (Aṣfahānī 204; Ibn Kathīr 2/137; Qurṭubī 8/35; Lisān 1/436).

recompense, compensation, requital, reward for good deeds and obedience of Allāh. It is a verbal noun of the root th-w-b which means to return. Also derived from the same root are Mathūbah and Mathwabah which have the same meaning as thawāb; while yet another derivative, Mathābah, means a place to which one returns again and again. Thawāb is used generally in the sense of recompense for good deeds and good intentions but it has also been used in the Qur’ān to mean requital for misdeeds (83:36) (Lisān 1/243-5; Lane 1/363).

Allāh’s days and years are different from those we have on earth (see the footnotes to 22:47, 32:5). Allāh says, “Do not abuse Time. I am Time” (Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Kitāb al-Afāẓ min al-Adab, Bāb al-Nahy ‘an sabb al-Dahr, ḥadīth 2246, 5827).

6:73, 18:99, 20:102, 23:101, 27:87, 36:51, 39:68, 50:20 (see the footnote to this āyah), 69:13, 74:8, 78:18

see Ditch, People of the

People of Authority. As an Islāmic term, Ulū al-’Amr means rulers, governors, army commanders and the like. A Muslim is enjoined to obey Allāh, the Prophet and the Ulū al-’Amr (4:59). It is clear that Ulū al-’Amr should not be obeyed if they order someone to commit a sin or act against a clear command of Allāh and His Prophet (Aṣfahānī 25; Jaṣṣāṣ 2/264f; Ibn Kathīr 1/529f; Qurṭubī 5/259-61; Kashshāf 242) – see Ahl al-Ḥall wa’l-‘Aqd.

Mother of the Book. It is usually held that Sūrah al-Fātiḥah (the first chapter of the Qur’ān) is the Umm-al-Kitāb. It has also been said that Umm al-Kitāb comprises the Muḥkam (q.v.) or explicit verses of the Qur’ān relating to laws and obligatory ordinances or that it is Al-Lawḥ al-Maḥfūz (q.v.) (Aṣfahānī 22, 424f; Ibn Kathīr 1/35f, 3/120, 2/333; Kashshāf 161, 542, 891; Qurṭubī 9/332; Lisān 4/363, 12/24, 31; Lane 1/90).

means a generation of people, followers of a religion or a prophet, a tribe, a nation. It also means a way, course and genus. As an Islāmic term, Ummah means the worldwide Muslim community. It is a short form of Ummat Muḥammad (Muḥammad’s community) or Al-Ummah al-Muḥammadīyah (The Muḥammadan Community), i.e., Muslims (Aṣfahānī 23; Qurṭubī 10/197; Kashshāf 587; Ibn Kathīr 2/404; Lisān 12/22-4, 26-8; Lane 1/90).

revelation, inspiration, sending a quick signal, suggestion, putting an idea in someone’s mind or heart or inculcating it in nature and animals. Waḥy has been used in the Qur’ān in various contexts: humans and Jinns inspire one another (6:112); satans inspire their friends among humans (6:21); Allāh inspired the mother of Mūsā (28:7). He inculcated certain properties in the bees (16:68) and inspired the disciples of Jesus (5:111) and angels (8:12). As an Islāmic term, Waḥy means the revelation of Allāh’s words and commands to a Prophet or Messenger of Allāh through an angel. When used in this context, Waḥy means that Allāh sent Message(s) to them through an angel because He does not speak directly to humans (42:51). As such, the Qur’ān and earlier divine Scriptures were direct revelations from Allāh to His Messengers through angels. Another word used for Waḥy in the Qur’ān is Tanzīl, to send down (e.g., 26:192 etc.). The reception of Waḥy put strain on the Prophet as he would sweat even during cold winter days while receiving revelations, as reported by his wife Sayyida ‘Āisha (Aṣfahānī 515f; Ibn Kathīr 1/94,755, 3/394f; Kashshāf 315, 1059; Qurṭubī 6/15, 343; Lisān 15/379-81; Lane 8/3050).

obligatory but less than Farḍ (q.v.)

an injunction, charge, bidding, command, admonition, will, testament. As an Islāmic term, Waṣīyyah means a dying person’s will about distribution of his/her Mīrāth (q.v.). Waṣīyyah is obligatory if such a person has a debt to be paid back or has in his custody some trust, monetary or otherwise, belonging to someone else. Such debt and trust will be paid first before distributing the Mīrāth among the heirs. A dying person is allowed to allocate in his will up to one third only of his/her property to be given to one or more persons who are not immediate heirs (Aṣfahānī 525; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/199-211, 2/121-7; Ibn Kathīr 1/215f; Qurṭubī 2/241; Lisān 15/394; Lane 8/3055).

friendship, guardianship, kinship. It means a relationship that makes both friends or relatives or guardians closer to reach other than others. Its noun, walīy (plural: awliyā’) or mawlā (plural: mawālī), is used for a freed slave who retains a special relationship with his previous master and both are required to help each other in need. It is also used for close paternal relatives who are more entitled to an inheritance. An orphan’s guardian is also called his walīy. Likewise, a neighbour too is considered a walīy of his neighbour. Muslims in general are walīy of one another (8:72, 9:71). Kuffar too are walīy to one another (8:73). An unmarried woman’s father is her walīy without whose permission she is not allowed to marry. Also, Allāh is the Walīy of the believers (3:68). (Thanawi, Kashshāf 2/762f; Jurjānī, Ta‘rīfāt 213; Kashshāf 1421; Qurṭubī 8/56; Lisān 15/406-8; Aṣfahānī 533-5).

2:219, 5:90 – see also Liquor.

means both the act of ablution before offering Ṣalāt (q.v.) and the water used for it. It is derived from the root w-ḍ-’a which means to be beautiful, to sparkle. As an Islāmic term, it means the washing of hands, mouth, face and feet (feet are to be rubbed according to the Shī‘ah) as enjoined in the Qur’ān (5:6), and explained in the books of Fiqh (q.v.). Tayammum (q.v.) (rubbing of face and hands with a piece of dry clay or dust) is performed in case of non-availability of water or if ablution is not possible or advisable due to some reason like illness (Lisān 1/194f; Lane 8/2945).

Gog and Magog – see the footnote to 18:94.

Orphan. A child who has lost one or both parents. As an Islāmic term, an orphan is a child who lost his father who is legally bound to take care of his upbringing and education. In the case of such an orphan, his ‘Aṣbāt (close male relatives from the paternal side) are legally required to take care of him until he attains majority (if they refuse, the ruler can force them to do so). Such a guardian is allowed to control and trade in the orphan’s properties for the orphan’s benefit until the latter is able to manage his affairs himself (Aṣfahānī 550; Lisān 12/645f; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/399-402, 2/78-80).

poor-due, tax paid by all solvent Muslims for the welfare of the community and humanity — see the footnote to 2:43, 2:83, 2:177, 9:60, 22:36, 89:18, 90:14; see also “Miskīn” under this section.

a belief in the endlessness of time, i.e., disbelief in the Hereafter. It is an Arabised word from the Persian Zendgīrī, belief in Zend. A believer in this creed was called Zandīk or Zandgīr, which has been Arabised as Zindīq, i.e., holder of Zend, a follower of Mezdek who authored Zend. As an Islāmic term, Zindīq means one who asserts the twin principles of Light and Darkness, says that the world is eternal, does not believe in God or the unity of the Creator and denies the Hereafter. A Muslim holding such belief was considered an apostate who would be put to death unless he repented and accepted Islām. This rule is no longer applied in any Muslim state (Jaṣṣāṣ 2/358; Thānawī, Kashshāf 1/540 (on the margin); Lisān 10/147; Lane 3/1257f).

adultery, fornication. As an Islāmic term, it means to have sexual contact with someone outside of marriage. It is a fāḥishah (q.v.). The charge of Zinā has to be proved by four witnesses or by self-confession (24:4, 13) as in the case of the Prophet’s companion Mā‘iz and the Ghāmidīyyah woman. As both were already married, they both were stoned to death. This punishment is proved by the Prophet’s Sunnah but is not mentioned in the Qur’ān. Some old and contemporary scholars do not accept stoning as the prescribed sentence for a married person’s adultery as the Qur’ān mentions one hundred lashes as the punishment for adultery (24:2) without specifying if it is only for the unmarried. As the provision of four eye witnesses (24:4) is nigh impossible and the accuser who fails to provide same is punished with 80 lashes, zinā is normally proved only by self-confession. Saudi Arabia now is perhaps the only country that retains stoning to death for adultery by married couples but it encourages an indicted offender to recant his/her confession and if he/she does it, the sentence is changed to imprisonment and flogging. A strong opinion exists which rejects stoning as punishment for a married adulterer. — See also Ḥadd. (Aṣfahānī 215; Jaṣṣāṣ 1/132-6; Kashshāf 718; Lisān 14/359; Lane 3/1260).