An Introduction to the Qur'ān

Qur’ān or Al-Qur’ān or Al-Qurān (Qur’ān/The Qur’ān/The Qurān) is the miraculous and inimitable Word of God sent to humanity through His Last Prophet Muḥammad (peace be upon him). The Qur’ān means Reading Material (if derived from the root qāf-rā’-alif, which means to read) or Preserved or Collected Material (if derived from the root qāf-rā’-hamzah which means to compile, collect and attach). Qur’ān or Al-Qur’ān appears 70 times in the divine text. Even some part of the Qur’ān is called “the Qur’ān.”

The Qur’ān is the Last Scripture revealed by Allāh in the line of the Torah, Psalms (Zabūr) and the Bible. The Qur’ān contains the same Message that was brought by all the earlier Prophets and Messengers (42:13). Allāh does not speak to any human directly. His messages come to humans from behind a veil or through a messenger (angels) (42:51). Allāh has guaranteed that this last Scripture will be preserved and kept safe until the Day of Resurrection (15:9).

As an Islamic term, “The Qur’ān” means the inimitable and eternal divine word and miracle of Allāh revealed to Prophet Muḥammad in Arabic that is contained in musḥafs and memorised in its entirety by millions of people in every generation starting with the first generation of the Prophet and his companions. The Qur’ān’s opening chapter, along with some other āyahs are always read in every Muslim prayer. It is the prime source of the Islamic creed and laws (Sharī‘ah). The Qur’ān starts with the first, opening chapter, Sūrah Al-Fātiḥah, and ends with the 114th Sūrah al-Nās. It is read, recited and listened to for both maw‘iẓah (admonition) and thawāb (recompense).

The Qur’ān is the oldest book in the Arabic language. It still remains the highest form of written Arabic and dominates Arabic language, grammar and literature. The Qur’ān standardised Arabic, making the Quraysh dialect the predominant one. It has kept the Arabic language alive and intact while all old languages have disappeared. The Qur’ān is the foundation on which the edifice of Islām and Islamic life and civilisation stands. It has influenced billions of lives since it was first revealed fifteen centuries ago.

The Qur’ān is the torch and guide that shows every individual and every generation the right path for life in this world according to the will of our Creator (17:9), without which success in the next, eternal, life—the Hereafter, is not possible. The Qur’ān is the source to know and follow the Islāmic system of beliefs, worships, rituals, code of behaviour, morality and laws that regulate relations between individuals, family and society.

Thousands of books have been written in various languages on different aspects of the Qur’ān, especially on the rules and laws mentioned in it. These are called “Aḥkām al-Qur’ān” (rules or laws of the Qur’ān). Foremost among such books is Al-Jaṣṣāṣ’ Aḥkām al-Qur’ān. There is a huge corpus of Tafsīr works, old, mediaeval and modern, which interpret and explain the Qur’ān.

The Qur’ān uses for itself a number of names, attributes and adjectives like:

The Qur’ān is the greatest miracle of Allāh given to the Prophet of Islām. Allāh has challenged people of all ages to produce a likeness of this book or even a few chapters like it. Allāh has also taken it upon Himself to preserve the Qur’ān forever (15:9). It is proved by history that the Qur’ān is the only divine scripture that is meticulously preserved in its original form and language; its oldest extant copy is the same as the latest ones. Meanwhile all other scriptures have been altered and changed over the years and are not read today in their original languages. Despite being repeated again and again by every Muslim every single day all these past fifteen centuries, the Qur’ān remains as fresh as ever. No one ever has ever tired of reciting it or repeating it. The first receptors of the Qur’ān accepted it as a miracle far above any poetry or oratory they knew while they objected to only two of its themes: oneness of God or monotheism and the idea of resurrection and after-life.

The Qur’ān was revealed by Allāh in one go to Al-Lawḥ al-Maḥfuẓ (Tablet Secure – 85:22) which is kept on the sixth heaven. From there it was revealed to the Baytu’l-‘Izzah (House of Power) on the first heaven, during the Laylatu’l-Qadr (Night of Destiny – 44:3, 97:1). According to ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Abbās, the Qur’ān was revealed from the Baytu’l-‘Izzah by the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) to the Prophet in small parts over 23 years.

The Prophet said about his experience of receiving revelations, “Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell. This form of the revelation is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is revealed. Sometimes the angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.” Mother of the Faithful Sayyidah ‘Ā’isha narrated this, adding, “I saw the Prophet receiving revelation on a very cold day and noticed sweat dripping from his forehead.”

Islamic scholars say that the Qur’ān was revealed in parts in order to strengthen the Prophet’s heart vis-à-vis the rejecters and disbelievers (25:32); to reply to the doubts and fallacies raised by the Rejecters from time to time (25:33), to facilitate its memorisation by the Prophet and his followers; to apply Islamic laws gradually, such as the gradual prohibition of liquor and gambling (2:219, 5:90) and to address queries raised by people, especially the Prophet’s companions.

The first revelation came to the Prophet when he was 40, on 21 Ramaḍān of the First Year of Prophethood (c. 10 August 610 CE), while meditating in the Cave of Ḥirā’ on al-Nūr mountain near Makkah. The last āyah was revealed in Rabī‘ al-Awwal, 11 AH/June 632 CE. The first āyahs to be revealed, according to a report by Mother of the Faithful Sayyidah ‘Ā’isha, as reported in Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, were the following:

Created Man out of a congealed blood clot:

Taught Man that which he knew not (96:1).

A break in revelations took place after Al-‘Alaq (Sūrah 96). Thereafter, al-Qalam (Sūrah 68), al-Muzzammil (Sūrah 73), al-Muddaththir (Sūrah 74), Al-Layl (Sūrah 92) and Al-Ḍuḥa (Sūrah 93) were revealed. The revelations continued for the next 13 years of the Prophet’s life in Makkah. The revelations during this period were mostly about basic Islāmic beliefs and moral teachings.

Sūrah Al-‘Alaq (96) was the first and Al-Mu’minūn (23) was the last to be revealed at Makkah. The revelations in this period are called “Makkan Sūrahs,” i.e., Sūrahs revealed at Makkah.

Revelations continued after the Prophet’s hijrah to Madīnah. These are called “Madinan Sūrahs.” The first Madinan Sūrah was al-Muṭaffifīn (Sūrah 83) while the last was al-Tawbah (Sūrah 9). “Madīnan Sūrahs” mostly deal with legal and administrative aspects of society including permission to wage Jihād to frustrate the Rejecters’ attempts to crush the fledgling Islamic community at Madīnah.

The last āyah of the Qur’ān to be revealed was about the prohibition of usury (2:278) though another report says that the last āyah to be revealed was the proclamation that the religion (Islām) has been perfected (5:3).

The Qur’ān contains 114 Sūrahs or chapters. Out of these, 82 are Makkīs, i.e., revealed at Makkah, 20 Madanīs while there is difference of opinion about 12 Sūrahs. Both Makkī and Madanī Sūrahs include āyahs which were revealed at the other place, i.e., a Makkī chapter may contain some Madanī āyahs and vice versa. This is because the Prophet after each revelation used to instruct the scribes to place new āyahs or a Sūrah at specific places.

The Qur’ānic text is neither prose nor poetry. Unlike human writings, no Sūrah includes any Introduction or ending. The language of the Qur’ān was a challenge to the Quraysh and Arabs who were proud of their poetry skills. They could not understand how an illiterate person was able to bring them verses that were superior to their most cherished literary tradition. So, they accused the Prophet of being possessed, or being a poet (taught by the Jinn) or of learning it from some non-Arab. This was refuted by the Qur’ān (23:70, 34:46, 52:30, 16:103). Indeed, the Prophet’s being illiterate has been taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood.

To facilitate its recital and reading, Muslims later divided the Qur’ān into 30 parts (juz’/pāra) so that it may be read easily over a month. Each part is also printed separately to facilitate handling and reading. A juz’ is further divided into two ḥizbs (plural aḥzāb), and each ḥizb is subdivided into four quarters (rubʻ al-aḥzāb). Under another system, the Qur’ān is divided into seven approximately equal parts called manzil (stages; plural: manāzil). Another scheme of division is provided by semantic units comprising roughly ten āyahs each. Such a section is called a rukū‘. Markers to such divisions are noted on the margins of printed copies of the Qur’ān.

The majestic and direct style of the Qur’ān is lost when it is translated into another language in simple prose of varying degrees of excellence according to the literary skills of the translator. Multiple translations in one language like English or Urdu bear out this fact. Some translators of the Qur’ān into English have tried to follow the style of the King James Bible which makes it much more difficult for an ordinary reader to read and understand it today.

All Sūrahs of the Qur’ān start with Basmalah (i.e., saying Bismillāhir Raḥmān al-Raḥīm: In the Name of Allāh, the Most-Gracious, the Most-Merciful (1:1)) except al-Tawbah (Sūrah 9) but since Basmalah is mentioned within the text of Sūrah Al-Naml (27:30), the number of Basmalahs in the Qur’ān are the same as the number of its Sūrahs, viz., 114.

The Sūrahs (chapters) are of various lengths. The longest Sūrahs are placed at the beginning of the Qur’ān while the smaller ones are placed at the end. Sūrahs are made up of short sentences or verses called āyahs/āyāt (singular: āyah) which means signs or miracles. The Sūrahs were given names later taking into consideration a word or a theme that occurs in a particular Sūrah.

The Qur’ān was committed to writing during the Prophet’s life-time itself. It was also memorised by hundreds of his companions. After his death, the written copy passed to the first caliph, Abū Bakr. And after his death on 10 Jumāda al-Thāniyah 13 AH (c. 11 August, 634), the copy passed to the Mother of the Faithful (wife of the Prophet) Ḥafṣah bint ‘Umar. The third caliph, ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān, observed that a number of copies were circulating in the newly conquered areas like Iraq, Syria, Egypt and Persia and that discrepancies were creeping in due to the usage of various Arabic dialects. He took the copy kept with the Mother of the Faithful Ḥafsah and appointed a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thābit, a scribe and memoriser of the Qur’ān, to prepare a chief or master copy (al-Muṣḥaf al-Imām) of the Qur’ān. After meticulous scrutiny, a master copy was prepared and its copies were sent to all major centres of the Islāmic state while all other copies were destroyed. The fourth Caliph, ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, accepted this master copy although reportedly he had retained a copy in which he had collected the Sūrahs and āyahs chronologically. ‘Alī also instructed Abu’l-Aswad al-Du’alī (d. 69 AH/689 CE) to set the rules of Arabic grammar and writing, further streamlining the scribing of the holy text.

The copies of the Qur’ān we have today in our hands are based on the third caliph ‘Uthman’s master copy, which is known as “al-Musḥaf al-‘Uthmānī” (The ‘Uthmānī Codex) or “al-Rasm al-‘Uthmānī” (the ‘Uthmānī Script). Punctuation marks and vowel signs were added later by a committee appointed by the Umayyad governor in Iraq, Al-Ḥajjāj (d. 95AH/714 CE).

The art of Arabic writing evolved speedily until it reached its pinnacle in the third Hijrī century when many beautiful scripts and diacritical marks were perfected. These are still used today. Though the Arabic script has further evolved and has been simplified since the Introduction of modern printing and computer technology, the printed Qur’ān copies still follow the same old style which at times is at variance with the current writing of Arabic.

The number of āyahs in the Qur’ān is at least six thousand. Some have given slightly higher numbers which is not due to any discrepancy in the text but due to differences over where a certain āyah starts or ends. The number of words in the Qur’ān have been calculated to be 77,439, while the total number of its characters have been counted to be 340,740. Some other calculations exist due to writing of Arabic characters in different ways. Standardised Arabic characters are a fairly late development that took place over three centuries after the advent of Islām and more recently after the Introduction of modern printing technology for which separate typefaces and shapes of each character were devised. It should be noted that shapes of most Arabic letters differ according to their usage in a word: at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word.

Recitation of the Qur’ān (Tilāwah)

Recitation of the Qur’ān is a commendable act in Islām. A reciter will get due recompense (ajr, thawāb) for reciting the Qur’ān. Over the centuries, recitation has evolved into a science called ‘Ilm al-Tajwīd, i.e., science of good or perfect recital. It teaches how to pronounce Arabic words, where to stop etc. Al-Khalīl al-Farāhīdī (d. 175 AH/791 CE) was the first to establish the foundations of this science. Others later added to its perfection. Now Tajwīd is a science and a perfect art imparted by specialised madrasahs and teachers in all parts of the Muslim world. National and international competitions are held to promote this art.

There are ten schools of recitation of the Qur’ān with slight variations based on different Arabic dialects while the text remains the same. Two of these schools are more popular: the school of Nāfi‘ of Madīnah (d. 169 AH/785 CE) as narrated by his disciple Warsh (d. 197 AH/812 CE) which is popular in North Africa and parts of Egypt. The other school is that of ‘Āṣim (d. 127 AH/744 CE) of Kūfah as narrated by his disciple Ḥafṣ (d. 180 AH/796 CE) which is popular in some parts of Egypt and the eastern parts of the Muslim World.

Recitation of the Qur’ān is divided into five stages: Taḥqīq (slow recitation to teach others and ponder over the meanings of the āyahs); Tartīl (slow reading while pondering over meanings); Ḥadr (fast reading while taking care of the rules of recitation); Tadwīr (reading that is neither slow nor fast, while taking care of the rules of recitation); Zamzamah (to recite slowly for one’s own benefit).

Abbreviated letters (al-Ḥurūf al-muqaṭṭa‘āt)

These letters, like Alif. Lām. Rā (10:1, 12:1), Alif. Lām. Mīm (2:1, 29:1, 30:1, 31:1, 32:1), Alif. Lām. Mīm. Rā (13:1), are found at the beginning of 29 out of the Qur’ān’s 114 Sūrahs. These letters are also known as “Openers” (Fawātiḥ) because they occur only at the beginning of some Sūrahs. Four Sūrahs are named after their abbreviated letters, viz., Ṭā. Hā (20:1), Yāsīn (36:1), Ṣād (38:1) and Qāf (50:1). Abbreviated letters appear at the beginning of the following Sūrahs: 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50 and 68. All of these, except three (Al-Baqarah, Āl ‘Imrān and Al-Ra‘d), are Makkan Sūrahs.

There has never been a consensus on the meanings of these letters. A number of explanations have been given over the centuries. Some prominent ones include:

The Qur’ān sets out general and summary rules about religious duties, rites, and spells out the outlines of social, legal and political rules for individuals and society. For example, the Qur’ān commands us to offer prayers (2:3, 2:43, 2:83, 2:110, 2:238) and pay Zakāt (2:83, 2:110, 2:177). It pronounces rules about minor and major impurities (5:6), prohibition of liquor and gambling (2:219, 5:90), adultery (17:32), usury (2:275) and pork (5:3, 16:115). It tells us how to treat parents (2:83), orphans (2:83), wives (4:19), relatives (2:83, 2:177), neighbours (4:36) and the poor (2:83, 2:177). It guides us how to distribute inheritance (4:11f), organise marriage (4:3) and divorce (2:230), etc. These general rules were explained and practiced by the Prophet, details of which are found in Ḥadīth and Sunnah books. The Qur’ānic āyahs are also recited for recompense (thawāb) and as treatment for various afflictions like ḥasad (envy), ‘ayn (evil eye), satanic waswasah (insinuations), sorcery, etc.

Over the centuries, various sciences related to the study, reading and recitation of the Qur’ān evolved. Most important among them is Tafsīr or explanation and interpretation of the Qur’ānic text. It started with the Prophet who used to explain the āyahs himself or would clarify when asked by his companions. Many of his companions, especially ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Abdullāh ibn Mas‘ūd, were famous mufassirs (exegetes) who explained Qur’ānic meanings, contexts of revelation and the meanings of difficult words.

Tafsīr involves knowledge about which āyah and Sūrah were revealed when, why and where (at Makkah or Madīnah or during some travel or expedition), which āyahs are nāsikh (abrogator) and which are mansūkh (abrogated). It also explains meanings of difficult words.

There are two major schools of Tafsīr: Tafsīr bi’l-mā’thūr (Tafsīr according to received knowledge, i.e., the Qur’ān, Ḥadīth and Sunnah of the Prophet and sayings of his Companions) and Tafsīr bi’l-Rāy (Tafsīr by opinion or conjecture). The first means that the mufassir, while interpreting the āyah, will stick to what the Qur’ān says at other places in the holy book about the matter, rely on verified information received from the Prophet, his companions and their successors (tābi‘ūn). The second school believes that the mufassir can offer his opinion (ijtihād or rational thinking) based on a thorough knowledge of the context of the concerned āyah’s revelation, Arabic language and poetry, and knowledge of naskh in the Qur’ān, etc.

Most important examples of Tafsīr bi’l-ma’thūr are: Al-Ṭabarī’s Jāmi‘ al-Bayān and Ibn Kathīr’s Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-‘Aẓīm. Famous examples of Tafsīr bi’l-Rāy include Al-Bayḍāwī’s Anwār al-Tanzīl and Al-Rāzī’s Miftāḥ al-Ghayb.

A science closely related to Tafsīr is Ta’wīl which means interpretation of the ultimate intent which may be different from what is obvious. It tries to explore the secret meanings of an āyah or attempts at Tawfīq (conciliation) between two seemingly conflicting āyahs. The mufassir using Ta’wīl tries to do ijtihād to find the deeper meaning of a certain āyah in the light of received knowledge and the linguistic implications of the words used. Ṣūfīs and Shī‘ah have preferred Ta’wīl.

There is another group of exegetes who are called “Literalists” (Ḥarfīs) and others who are called “Fundamentalists” (Uṣūlīs). The Literalists prefer the literal meaning of an āyah without using reasoning. They do not allow ijtihād in the interpretation of the Qur’ān. For them, when the Qur’ān says “the Hand of Allāh is over their hands” (48:10) or “then He settled on the Throne” (e.g., 7:54), it should be taken literally, i.e., Allāh has actual hands and that He literally took His seat on the Throne. Literalist mufassirs include Ẓāhirīs and the Salafīs who do not allow attributing to the Qur’ānic texts meanings different from what is apparent from the text and the words used. Fundamentalists, on the other hand, allow use of reasoning (ijtihād) to find the correct meaning of an āyah, using the entire corpus of the divine word and requirements of an age and time different from that of Makkah and Madīnah. Fundamentalists include Ṣūfīs, non-Salafī Sunnīs and Shī‘ah.

The Qur’ānic āyahs are divided into two groups: Muḥkam (Fundamental or Precise), whose meanings are clear and do not require any special effort to explain; and Mutashābih (Ambiguous) whose meanings are obscure, hence they may be interpreted in a number of ways. This is based on the assertion in the Qur’ān (3:7) that some of its āyahs are muḥkam and others are mutashābih whose meanings are known to Allāh. These include allegories, similes and metonymy (kināyah). Muslims are advised not to indulge in disputes about mutashābih āyahs (3:7).

There are hundreds of old books like Dalā’il al-I‘jāz and Asrār al-Balāghah by ‘Abdul Qāhir al-Jurjānī (d. 471 AH/1079 CE) and I‘jāz al-Qur’ān by Abū Bakr al-Bāqillānī (d. 402 AH/1013 CE) but they deal with the miraculous linguistics, eloquence and literary nature of the Qur’ān. Since the mid-1950s, books started appearing about scientific indications in the Qur’ān that are further proof of its divine nature.

The Qur’ān is a book of divine guidance about Allāh’s scheme for His creation of the Universe and Mankind, how humans should behave and spend their lives on earth and to warn people that their lives in the Hereafter will be decided according to their behaviour on earth. But the Qur’ān occasionally also includes some prophecies, scientific facts and indications to facts that were not known to the people of Arabia or even Mankind in general at the time of the revelation. There must be many more scientific indications in the Qur’ān that will be discovered by future generations.

Following is a summary of only a few scientific indications in the Qur’ān:

The Qur’ān mentions in passing and sometimes in detail past events, prophets, ancient peoples, important personalities and events like Ādam and Ḥawwā’, Qābīl and Hābīl, Nūḥ, the Great Flood, Ibrāhīm, Lūṭ, Yūsuf, Ya‘qūb, Yūnus, Mūsā, Pharaoh, the exodus of the Children of Isrā’īl from Egypt, Dā’ūd, Sulaymān, the Queen of Saba’ (Sheba) and her kingdom, the People of the Cave (al-Kahf), the birth of Mariyam, the miraculous birth of ‘Īsā, the People of the Elephant who came to demolish the Ka’bah, etc. These details sometimes tally with biblical accounts but at other times they differ, e.g., ‘Īsā was not crucified (4:157), the Qur’ān does not accept the theory of the Original Sin, rather it says that Allāh had forgiven Ādam before he and his wife were sent down to earth (2:37, 20:122).

The Qur’ān contains references to more than fifty people and events mentioned in the Bible. These narrations are usually comparable but there are also notable differences and crucial additions which show that the Prophet did not copy the biblical narratives. Rather, the source of both narratives is the same with the difference that the Bible has been altered over millennia and is now read in languages other than the one in which it was revealed in, while the Qur’ān is preserved as pristine as it was revealed fifteen centuries ago. It is still read in the same language in which it was revealed and the Qur’ān remains the highest literary expression of that language. Here is a brief account of only some of the basic differences between the biblical and Qur’ānic narratives.

(a) The Bible says that Yūsuf’s father Prophet Ya‘qūb (Jacob) on his own accord sent him to his brothers who were herding his father’s flock at a different place (Genesis 37:12), while the Qur’ān says that Prophet Ya‘qūb acquiesced at the persistent request and assurances of his sons to take Yūsuf to play with them. They were jealous of Yūsuf, who was their half-brother, for he was their father’s favourite (12:8). They planned to kill him and throw his body in the wilderness but they later dropped him in a well.

(b) According to the Bible (Genesis 37:24), Yūsuf’s brothers dropped him in a dry pit, but when a caravan of Ishmaelite traders passed by, they took him out and sold him to the caravan for twenty [pieces of] silver. The traders took him to Egypt where they sold him to Potiphar, an officer of the Pharaoh and captain of his guard (Genesis 37:36). The Qur’ān, on the other hand, says that Yūsuf’s brothers threw him in a well and told their father that a wolf had eaten Yūsuf (12:17). Later, a caravan came and discovered him at the bottom of the well when they sent down their bucket to fetch water. The excited caravan men pulled him out and took him to Egypt where they sold him for a pittance (12:19).

(c) The Bible and the Qur’ān narratives about Yūsuf’s ordeal differ about how he was treated by his Egyptian master after the latter’s wife tried to seduce him. According to the Bible, his master refused to believe Yūsuf’s protestations of innocence and imprisoned him (Genesis 37:19). But, according to the Qur’ān, the master accepted the interpretation of a wiseman (not mentioned in the Bible) who said that if his shirt was torn from the back (which was the case), he was telling the truth and if his shirt was torn from the front, she was telling the truth. According to the Qur’ānic narrative, the master reprimanded his wife and allowed Yūsuf to stay in his household. Now the wife, angered by the rumours in the town about her attempt to seduce her servant, called her female friends to a feast where she ordered Yūsuf to appear before the women. Dazzled by his looks, they injured their hands with the knives they were using to cut fruit. After this, the master sent Yūsuf to prison for a while in the hope that the rumour mills may fall silent (12:26).

(d) When the Pharaoh called Yūsuf at the recommendation of the former’s servant, whose dream Yūsuf had interpreted correctly in prison, the Bible says that Yūsuf readily accepted the call (Genesis 41:14) but the Qur’ān says that when the King called him, Yūsuf insisted that “the Exalted One’s” (his master’s) wife first vindicate him in front of the King, which she did admitting her crime (12:50). Only thereafter did Yūsuf join the King’s court. In the Bible narrative, Yūsuf interpreted the king’s dream after joining him (Genesis 41:25) while, according to the Qur’anic narrative, he readily interpreted the dream when asked about it while he was still in prison (12:45). Also, according to the Bible, the King himself appointed Yūsuf as head of his household and keeper of stores (Genesis 41:39) but in the Qur’ānic narrative, it is Yūsuf who asked to be appointed in that position (12:55).

(e) In the biblical story, Yūsuf disclosed himself to his brethren before they returned to their father in Canaan with grain, and told them to go and bring his father and the whole household (Genesis 45:1). But, according to the Qur’ān, Yūsuf kept his younger brother Binyāmīn (Benjamin) with him as a punishment for “stealing” the king’s bowl (12:72). The Qur’ān also says that the brothers returned to their father in Canaan with the grain while the eldest, Reuben, decided to stay back in Egypt for failing to protect Binyāmīn (12:80). As a result, Prophet Ya‘qūb wept so much that he lost his eyesight. He told his sons to go back to Egypt and enquire about Yūsuf and his brother. It was then that Yūsuf disclosed his identity to his brothers. He admonished them but readily forgave them and sent them back to Canaan to bring his father and the whole family to Egypt (12:100).

(a) Islām introduced a regular annual tax (Zakāt) for the benefit of the poor.

(b) Islām instituted a regular annual month-long fast during the month of Ramaḍān for all healthy Muslims.

(c) Islām instituted an annual regular pilgrimage (Ḥaj) to Makkah and its surrounding areas where the great event of Prophet Ibrahīm’ readiness to sacrifice his son for the sake of Allāh took place. This pilgrimage is obligatory for all healthy and solvent Muslim males and females once in a life-time.

(d) Institution of five-times-a-day regular obligatory prayers (Ṣalāt) for all adult Muslims.

(e) Institution of a weekly congregational prayer (Jumu‘ah) in a mosque where Muslims of the area meet at least once in a week.

(f) Institution of the two annual festivals: ‘Īd al-Fiṭr at the end of the annual fast and ‘Īd al-Aḍ-ḥa at the end of the Ḥaj. The high point is a congregational prayer at dawn on both occasions in which Muslims of a village or town meet at least twice a year.

(g) War booty was made permissible for Muslims while it was not allowed to earlier nations.

There is a fundamental difference between the Qur’ān and the Bible. The Qur’ān clearly says that it is the very word of God, the same that was revealed to the Prophet Muḥammad, while both the Old and New Testaments (The Bible) are narratives and histories as compiled and told by later scribes and disciples. Both the Old and New Testaments narratives follow the human style of compilation and writing history while the Qur’ān follows a direct, majestic style of communication, with no indication that it is the account of a third person committing it to writing. It may be said that the Qur’ān is superior to the Bible and that the Old and New Testaments may be placed in the same category as Ḥadīth and Sunnah, which too are superior because they follow a meticulous chain of reliable narrators that is totally missing in the Bible.

It should also be borne in mind here that while the Qur’ānic text in Arabic is meticulously preserved in its original form, the Torah was destroyed and rewritten from memory several times. Unlike the Qur’ān, both the Old and New Testaments are not read today in their original languages. It should also be borne in mind that the similarity between the Qur’ān and earlier divine Scriptures is because their source is the same. Earlier Scriptures underwent interpolations, additions and alterations (2:111, 5:13) on a large scale over millennia and this continues even today: new editions of the Bible (Old and New Testaments) are regularly published with editing and polishing to suit the needs and outlook of the given Church at a given time.

Islāmic Law (Sharī‘ah) is different from the strictness of Judaism and laxity of Christianity. It follows a moderate and middle path. The Islāmic concept of God differs from the angry God of the Hebrews (Yahweh) who favours a certain people or the Christian god who is part of a Trinity. In Islām, God is Most-Merciful, Cherisher and Sustainer of everything. The Islāmic concept of God differs from the Jewish concept where God takes care of only one “chosen” group and the Christian concept where God “sacrifices” His “son” to atone for only those who believe in the latter. Islām strictly believes in One God who is the Lord and Sustainer of the whole of humanity and of all creatures in the Universe. He has no favourites and no sons or daughters.

For centuries, calligraphers and copyists prepared copies of the Qur’ān for which they used some easy Arabic scripts, like the Ḥijāzī script, avoiding difficult ones like the beautiful Kūfī script. The first printed Qur’ān copy was made in Venice in 1537 CE, apparently to be sold in the Ottoman State where the printing press was not allowed until 1588 CE. Printing became popular in the Ottoman State and Arab countries only in the later part of the 19th century. The first Qur’ān copy to be printed in Istanbul was only in 1877 while some earlier editions had appeared in Russia and Iran, etc. Today, the Qur’ān, with or without translation and in various shapes and sizes, is printed all over the world, though the Egyptian royal copy of the Qur’ān prepared by a committee of the scholars of Al-Azhar and first published in 1923 is considered to be the most accurate and reliable. The development of digital technology, easy availability of computers and creation of Unicode scripts has made typing, copying and printing of the Qur’ānic text easier than ever.

Literary Arabic is a very comprehensive and delicate language in which a single three-character root yields hundreds of derivatives and shapes, some with opposite meanings. This is why translation of the Qur’ān is a very difficult task unless one is well-versed in literary Arabic.

It is reported that the first to translate the Qur’ān was the Prophet’s Persian companion Salmān who translated the opening chapter into Persian. It has been claimed that the first complete translation of the Qur’ān was done in Sindh in 884 CE for the Hindu Raja Mehruk by the order of ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Azīz, son of an Umayyad caliph.

The first known European translation was done into Latin by Robert of Ketton for Peter the Venerable in 1143 CE (printed in 1542-43). Then the first French translation was done by Andre DuRyer in 1647. It was used by Alexander Ross for the first English translation which was published in 1649. However, the first proper English translation of the Qur’ān was done by George Sale in 1734. Over 150 English translations of the Qur’ān have been published to date. The most popular is ‘Abdullāh Yūsuf Ali’s which was first published in parts at Lahore in 1934-37. An official Saudi delegation visiting the United States in 1946 had copies of the third edition of this translation printed for presentation to American dignitaries. Thereafter, Saudi Arabia has distributed millions of copies of this translation, which has made it, despite its shortcomings, the most accessible and popular translation of the Qur’ān in English. Several attempts were made by Saudi authorities to correct and streamline this translation but major problems still exist. This is why the current translation has been attempted. It started as a revision of ‘Abdullāh Yūsuf Ali’s translation in 2011 but, as work progressed, it evolved into a new, perhaps most accurate, English translation of the divine text to date.

Today, the Qur’ān has been translated into most languages of the world. In some languages, like Urdu and English, there are hundreds of translations.